Sophie Lee - Options

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78 OPTION E: NEUROBIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR

E.1 Introduction and examples of behaviour

E.1.1 Define behaviour as it relates to animals. Behaviour: all responses made by an organism in response to changes in its environment

E.1.2 Define and distinguish between innate behaviour and learned behaviour. Innate behaviour: instincive; inborn habits Learned behaviour: instilled as a result of exposure to stimuli

E.1.3 Explain the role of natural selection in the development of behaviour patterns. Natural selection:

selects genetic codes necessary for survival 
Innate behaviour: stereotypical response to environmental stimuli 
   genetically inherited 

E.1.4 Explain, using species of birds or mammals (other than human), one example of each of the following types of behaviour: migration, grooming, communication, courtship and mate selection, and parental care. Migration:

cyclic movement of animals between 2 distinct regions with seasonal changes 
eg. Canada goose, arctic tern, swallow, white stork, blue whale 

Grooming:

encourages social bonding withing a group 
removes debris and parasites 
eg. baboon, monkey 

Communication:

passing information from one animal to another to influence resulting behaviour 
eg. pheromones (ants), bird songs, bees, wolves, red deer 

Courtship / Mate selection:

exchange signals - each signal affects next signal 
partners respond to sexual overtures of potential partners 
male competition / female choice 
eg. peacock, mallard duck, stag 

Parental care:

teach higher learning behaviour 
fewer offspring produced 
eg. primates, birds 

E.1.5 Explain the need for quantitative data in the studies of behaviour. Quantitative data:

justify behavioural theories 
gather information 
avoid generalization / misinterpretation 

E.1.6 Analyze data relating to any of the above.

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E.2 Perception of stimuli

E.2.1 Describe how sensory receptors act as energy transducers. Sensory receptors as Energy transducers:

interpret forms of energy 
eg. light, sound, heat  senses  nervous impulse 

E.2.2 State the five classifications of human sensory receptors. Human sensory receptors:

mechanoreceptors - touch (eg. skin) 
chemoreceptors - smell (eg. nose) 
thermoreceptors - heat (eg. skin) 
photoreceptors - sight (eg. retina) 
electroreceptors - sonar (eg. sharks / bats) 

E.2.3 Describe what is meant by each of the terms in E.2.2 with reference to one named example of each classification of receptor. refer to E.2.2

E.2.4 Draw the structure of the human eye.

E.2.5 Draw the structure of the human retina. Human retina: light \__ ganglion cells

      |     |    |     | / 

\

      |     |    |     |  |--- bipolar cells (monosymaptic) 

/

      |     |    |     | \ 
     -|----|---|----|-  | 
|--- photoreceptors (cone or rod) 
      |     |    |     | .  | 
     \/   |_|  \/   |_|   / 
  ``--``---``--``---`` 
 pigment epithelium 

E.2.6 Outline the principle of trichromacy in relation to colour vision. A - ciliary body I - chorote B - ciliary muscle J - vitreous humour C - conjuctiva K - retina D - cornea L - optic nerve E - pupil M - blind spot F - lens N - fovea G - suspensory ligament H - rectus muscle

80 Trichromacy:

light made of three colors: red, green, blue 
combination of light  colored vision 

E.2.7 Explain briefly how visual stimuli are perceived and processed in the retina including the roles of rods and cones, pigments, diffuse and monosynaptic bipolar cells, neurons of the optic nerve and visual cortex. Visual stimuli

Photoreceptors

cones: bright light; full color vision 
rods: dim light; black-and-white 

Glial cells

Interneurons

horizontal cells - inhibit bipolar cells 
bipolar cells - stimulated by photoreceptor / inhibited by horizontal cell 
ganglion cells - bipolar cell signal  fire action potential 

Optic disc - exit from eye for ganglion cells

Optic nerve - fused ganglion cells (carry information to brain) Pigment epithelium (behind neural retina)

prevents unabsorbed light from scattering / degrading image 

E.3 Innate behaviour

E.3.1 Define innate behaviour. Innate behaviour: instinctive behaviour instilled from birth

associated with genetics 

E.3.2 Outline three examples of human spinal reflexes including the pain withdrawl reflex. Spinal reflexes:

pain withdrawl reflex - appendige withdraws if in contact with pain 
knee jerk reflex - knee jerks upward when hit with hammer 
cilio-spinal reflex - pupils dialate when nape of neck is pinched 

E.3.3 Draw the structure of the spinal cord and its spinal nerves, to show the components of a reflex arc including receptor, effector and association neurons.

E.3.4 Outline three cranial reflexes including the pupil and the Hring-Breuer reflexes. association neuron Sensory neuron (receptor) motor plate (effector) motor plate (effector)whitemattergrey matter

81 Cranial reflexes:

pupillary reflex - dialate in dim light; contract in bright light 
Hring-Breuer - lungs deflate after stretch receptors in alveoli are triggered 
uvular reflex - gag when uvula is touched 

E.3.5 Draw the gross structure of the brain, including the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and cerebral hemispheres.

E.3.6 State the number of cranial nerves connected to the brain.

Number of cranial nerves connected to the brain: 12 

E.3.7 Outline the neural pathways involved in the pupil reflex and describe how this reflex is used to test for brain stem death. Brain stem:

midbrain \ 
pons  |--- responsible for survival instincts / homeostasis 
medulla oblongata / 

Brain stem death:

associated with clinical deatn 
pupil reflex not present (controlled through cranial nerves / brain stem) 

E.3.8 Define taxis. Taxis: directed movement in reaction to stimulus

E.3.9 Define kinesis. Kinesis: change in rate of activity in response to stimulus

E.3.10 Explain, using one example of each behaviour, how these responses imporve animals chances of survival. Improving survival:

taxis: flatworms move toward food 
kinesis: woodlice move faster in non-optimum conditions 

E.3.11 Discuss the importance of innate behaviour to the survival of animals. Innate behaviour:

associated with basic survival skills (nutrition, shelter, reproduction) 
enables survival without parents 

corpus callosum hypothalamus pituitary gland pons medulla oblongata cerebrum (left and right hemispheres) cerebellum spinal chord

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present at birth 

E.4 Learned behaviour

E.4.1 Define conditioning. Conditioning:

association of one sensory stimulus with another 

E.4.2 Outline the experiments of Ivan Pavlov into conditioning of dogs. Ivan Pavlov:

ring bell when feed dog 
dog salivate when bell rings 
 dog associates bell with food 

E.4.3 Define operant conditioning. Operant conditioning:

associates an action (operation) with a stimuli 
creating an association between an action and a stimuli 
positive reinforcement: animal performs action for reward 
negative reinforcement: animal performs action to avoid harmful experience 

E.4.4 Outline the experiments of Skinner into operant conditioning. Skinner:

rat push lever in response to light / sound 
if rat push lever, reward with food 
if rat does not, give minor shock 

E.4.5 Define imprinting. Imprinting:

animal trained by inherited behaviour b/c environment 
picked up in early life 

E.4.6 Outline Konrad Loren experiments on imprinting in geese. Konrad Loren:

geese follow Loren as if hes their mother 

E.4.7 Define insight learning. Insight learning:

ability to reason 
allow animal to solve problem without trial-and-error 
eg. monkey in room with banana stacks boxes to get banana 
eg. dog on leash removes noose to free itself 

E.4.8 Discuss theories relating to the neural basis of memory and learning. Memory storage:

neurons  neural pathway 
short-term: neural excitations (few seconds - few hours) 
long-term: neurons modified (neural pathway  recall) 

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chemical secretions produced 
weakened by disease 

E.4.9 Discuss how learned behaviour improves chances of survival. Learned behaviour:

acquire information from past experiences 
use experience to adapt to stimuli 

E.5 Social behaviour

E.5.1 List three (3) examples of animals that show social behaviour. Social behaviour:

eg. wolf - dominance 
eg. honeybee - colony 
eg. ant - colony 

E.5.2 Describe the social organization of honey bee colonies. Honeybee colony:

Queen - head; lays eggs 
Worker - collect honey; care for other bees 
Drone - mate with queen 
Larva - grow into new worker; dependent 
Egg - grow into new bee 
queen and workers genetically related 
workers genetically identical 
waggle dance  communication 

E.5.3 Discuss the role of altruistic behaviour in social organizations using two examples. Altruistic behaviour:

individual sacrifices self for another / no apparant gain 
eg. ground squirrel - whistle when predator comes 
eg. honeybee worker - sterile; sting invader  die 

E.5.4 Discuss the effects of alcohol abuse. Alcohol abuse:

neurotransmitter dopamine not produced  depression 
violence as byproduct 
addiction: want alcohol to make up for dopamine not produced 
ability to metabolize glucose 

E.6 The autonomic nervous system

E.6.1 State that the type of motor neurons contained in the ANS is sympathetic and parasympathetic. Motor neurons in autonomic nervous system:

sympathetic 
parasympathetic 

E.6.2 State whether the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are antagonistic or cooperative.

sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are antagonistic (ie, work against each other) 

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E.6.3 Name the four organs / systems which the autonomic nervous systems serve. Autonomic nervous system:

lungs 
heart 
digestion 
bladder 
pupil 

E.6.4 Explain the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic system by reference to the heart, salivary glands and iris of the eye. Sympathetic system:

accelerate heartbeat 
strengthen heart contraction 
dilate pupil 
inhibit salivation 

Parasympathetic system:

slow heartbeat 
contract pupil 
stimulate salivation 

E.6.5 Discuss relationships between the influence of the conscious part of the brain and automatic reflexes as shown by bladder / anus control, meditation and yoga. Influence of consciousness:

bladder / anus: double sphincter 

- inner sphincter controlled automatically - outer sphincter controlled consciously

meditation / yoga: affect balance between autonomic / somatic 

- must be maintained for control shift to continue

E.7 Neurotransmitters and synapses

E.7.1 State that the synapses of the peripheral nervous system are classified.

synapses of peripheral nervous system classified by neurotransmitter used 
eg, acetylcholine, noradrenaline 

E.7.2 Explain how presynaptic neurons can either encourage or inhibit postsynaptic transmission by depolarization or hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane. Nerve impulse transmission:

depolarization  transmit action potential by means of neurotransmitter 
hyperpolarization  not transmitted: impulse stops because not enough neurotransmitter 

E.7.3 Outline the way in which pain is sensed and how endorphins and enkephalins can act as pain-killers. Pain sensation:

cell bursts  cytoplasm spills 
enzymes: blood  bradykinin 
bradykinin binds to dendrite of sensory neuron 
sensory neuron releases Substance P 

Pain-killer:

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endorphin - control Substance P 
     - work with serotonin  calming effect 
     - supress pain 
     - released from adrenal cortex / anterior pituitary 
enkephalin - type of endorphin released from CNS 

E.7.4 Outline the syntoms of Parkinsons disease and the involvement of dopamine. Parkinsons disease:

memory loss 
brain breaks down 
paraplegicism 
dopamine: not enough produced 

E.7.5 Explain how psychoactive drugs affect the brain and personality. Psychoactive drugs:

neurons stop / start producing neurotransmitter 
emotion level high during effective period of drug 
emotion level low after due to lack of neurotransmitter 

Actions:

promote neurotransmitter 
block neurotransmitter 
enhance absorption 
block reception 
mimic neurotransmitter 
target neurotransmitter 

E.7.6 Discuss the effects of excitatory psychoactive drugs including nicotine, caffeine, cocaine and amphetamines. Excitatory psychoactive drugs:

nicotine - mimic acetylcholine - irritability /  heart rate /  blood pressure / gastric upset 
caffeine - low dose: affect cerebral cortex - alertness / restlessness 
 - high dose: affect medulla oblongata - disrupt motor coordination / mental coherence 
cocaine - block reabsorption of dopamine / norepinephrine -  heart rate /  blood pressure /  sexual 

desire

amphetamine - resemble dopamine / norepinephrine - brain makes less and less of the neurotransmitters 

E.7.7 Discuss the effects of inhibitory psychoactive drugs including benzodiazepines (Valium and Temazepam, etc) and cannabis. Inhibitory psychoactive drugs:

Valium - enhance effect of GABA 
Temazepam - sleeping pills 
Cannabis - enhance seratonin 
Chloropromazine - block acetylcholine / norepinephrine 

86 OPTION H: FURTHER HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

H.1 Homeostasis

H.1.1 Describe / identify the various ways in which homeostasis maintains a constant internal environment. Homeostasis:

maintaining internal environment at a constant level 
blood pH 
water potential 
oxygen 
carbon dioxide concentration 
blood glucose 
body temperature 
negative feedback 

H.1.2 Explain how homeostasis relates to negative feedback. Negative feedback:

way to moniter variables 
correct changes in variables 
constant fluctuation above / below mean 

H.1.3 Describe the control of body temperature, including the roles of sweat glands, hairs, skin arterioles and shunt vessels, shivering, hormones (thyroxine, TRH, TSH), anterior pituitary gland, hypothalamus and thyroid. Body temperature regulation:

sweat glands - secrete sweat to skin surface 

- sweat evaporates cooling effect - body temperature decreases

skin arterioles and shunt vessels - carry blod near surface of skin 

- lets body heat be released - vasodilation / increased heart rate more blood pass near skin

shivering - involuntary contraction of muscles 

- releases heat in contraction to warm up body

hormones - metabolic hormones speed up metabolism  speed up rate  heat up body 

- hypothalamus releases TRH anterior pituitary releases TSH thyroid releases thyroxin control metabolism; inhibitor to TRH release from hypothalamus

H.1.4 Explain the control of water potential including the roles of the hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary gland and feelings of thirst. Water potential control:

hypothalamus makes ADH  posterior pituitary 
posterior pituitary secretes ADH  keep water in system 
thirst - osmoreceptors in hypothalamus tell brain cells losing water 
kidneys responsible for osmoregulation (affected by ADH in distal convoluted tubule) 

H.1.5 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon and insulin secretion, and cells in the pancreatic islets, hypothalamus and feelings of hunger and satiety. Blood glucose regulation

 cells (pancreas)  secrete glucagon 
glucagon  raise glucose levels 

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 cells (pancreas)  secrete insulin 
insulin  lower glucose levels 
pancreas  regulate insulin / glucagon 
hunger / saity - glucose sensors tell brain to signal for hunger 

H.2 Digestion

H.2.1 Name the organs which secrete digestive juices and where these juices go in the body.

salivary glands - mouth 
gastric cells - stomach 
pancreas - duodenum 
gall bladder - duodenum 
wall of small intestine - small intestine 

H.2.2 State the contents of saliva, gastric juice and pancreatic juice.

Saliva: salivary amylase, mucus, buffers, antibacterial agents 
Gastric juice: lipase, pepsinogen ( + HCl  pepsin ), hydrochloric acid, gastrin 
Pancreatic juice: pancreatic lipase, pancreatic amylase, trypsinogen ( + enterokinase  trypsin ), 

chymotrypsinogen ( + nuclease chymotrypsin ), procarboxypeptidase ( + nuclease carboxypeptidase )

H.2.3 Outline the role of membrane-bound enzymes in the surface cells of the small intestine in completing digestion. Intestinal enzymes:

intestinal glands ( crypts of Lieverkuhn ) secrete intestinal juice 
enterokinase: trypsinogen  trypsin 
aminopeptidase 
maltase: maltose  sucrose 
lactase: lactose  glucose + galactose 
peptidase: polypeptide  amino acid 
sucrase: sucrose  glucose + fructose 

H.2.4 Draw the structural features of exocrine glands including secretory cells grounded into acini and ducts. Exocrine gland:

H.2.5 Explain the structural features of exocrine gland cells as seen in electromicrographs. Exocrine Gland Cells:

unicellular glands in goblet cells ( digestive / respiratory / urinary tract lining )  lubrication 
eg. tubular - intestine; acinar - seminal vesicle 

H.2.6 Name the two bodily systems which control secretion. Bodily systems controlling secretion:

 nervous system 

duct acini - contains secretory cells

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hormonal system 

H.2.7 Explain how soluble starch is completely digested as it passes along the alimentary canal. Starch digestion:

oral cavity: salivary amylase ( starch  maltose ) 
stomach: minimal digestion 
lumen of small intestine: pancreatic amylase ( polysaccharides  maltose ) 
brush border of small intestine: maltase, sucrase, lactase, etc ( disaccharides  monosaccharides ) 

H.2.8 Explain why cellulose remains undigested in the alimentary canal. Cellulose undigestion:

glucose monomers of cellulose are in b configuration 
a glucose hydrolyzing enzymes cannot hydrolize cellulose 
cellulose fibers wear down wall of digestive tract  stimulate mucus production 
mucuse aids in smooth passage of food through tract 

H.2.9 Explain why pepsin and trypsin are initially synthesized as inactive precursors and how they are subsequently activated.

pepsin / trypsin digest proteins 
need to be synthesized as inactive precursors so that secretory cell doesnt break down 
known as zymogens 

H.2.10 Outline the action of endo- and exopeptidases. Endo- and exo- peptidase:

polypeptides  dipeptides / amino acids 
endopeptidase cleaves middle of chain 
exopeptidase cleaves end of chain 

H.2.11 Explain the problem of lipid digestion in a hydrophilic medium and the role of bile in overcoming this problem. Lipid digestion:

bile ( liver ): contains bile salts 
bile salts: emulsify fats for absorption 
lumen: fat globules converted to emulsify fat by bile salts 
lipase: fat  glycerol + fatty acid + glyceride 
villi: glycerol + fatty acid  fat 

H.3 Absorption of digested foods

H.3.1 Draw a portion of the ileum (in transverse section), as seen under a light microscope. serosa muscularis externa submucosa mucosa lumen

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H.3.2 Explain the structural features of an epithelium cell of a villus as seen in electron micrographs including microvilli, mitochondria, pinocytotic vesicles and tight junctions. Epithelium cell (villus):

microvilli - increase surface area 
mitochondria - supply energy for vesicle formation / active transport 
pinocytotic vesicles - take in polypeptides / large molecules 
tight junctions - prevent water / nutrients from escaping 
           - allow selective reabsorption 

H.3.3 Explain the mechanisms used by the ileum to absorb and transport food, including facilitated diffusion, active transport and endocytosis. Food absorption:

facilitated diffusion - channel pores 
active transport - protein pores 
endocytosis - vesicle formation 

H.3.4 List the materials which are not absorbed and are egested. Egested materials:

cellulose 
lignin 
bile pigments 
bacteria 
intestinal cells 

H.4 The functions of the liver

H.4.1 Outline the circulation of blood through the liver tissue including hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, sinusoids and hepatic vein. Hepatic artery (1/3 blood supply) Hepatic portal vein (2/3 blood supply) Sinusoids (like capillaries)

filter blood 
detoxify blood 
control nutrient level 

Hepatic vein

H.4.2 Explain the need for the liver to regulate levels of nutrients in the blood. Regulating nutrient levels:

ensure presence of enough nutrients to let body function 
reduce excess nutrients which could inhibit body function 
remove wastes 
maintain homeostasis 

H.4.3 Outline the role of the liver in the storage of nutrients including carbohydrate, iron, and the vitamins retinol (A) and calciferol (D). Role of liver in storage:

carbohydrates - produce glucagon / insulin to store and release glucose as glycogen 

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iron - produce ferritin (protein-iron complex) for storage in Kupffer cells 
retinol (vitamin A) \   stored in liver 
calciferol (vitamin D) /   sinuses 
lipids and heavy metals - Kupffer cells 

H.4.4 Describe the process of bile secretion. Bile composition:

water 
bicarbonate ions 
bile salts 
bile pigments 

Bile secretion:

produced & secreted in bile canaliculi 
flow through bile ductiles 
converge into common hepatic duct 
enter duodenum (secreted) or cystic duct  gall bladder (storage & secretion) 

H.4.5 Describe the process of erthrocyte and haemoglobin breakdown including phagocytosis, digestion of globin, and bile pigment formation. Erthrocyte breakdown:

phagocytosis by Kupffer cells (in monocyte-macrophage system) 
globin digested (protein part of hemoglobin) 
bile pigments released 

H.4.6 Outline the synthesis of plasma proteins by the liver. Plasma protein synthesis:

hepatocytes (lining liver sinusoids) lack basement membranes: plasma proteins can move in and out 
hepatocytes synthesize plaspa proteins and secrete them into sinusoids 

H.5 Transport

H.5.1 Explain the events of the cardiac cycle including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole, and heart sounds (cross reference 5.2.1 - 5.2.3). Cardiac cycle:

ventricular systole (110) - ventricles contract 
ventricular diastole (80) - ventricles relax 

Heart sounds:

lub - atrioventricular valves closing 
dub - semilunar valves closing 

H.5.2 Analyze data showing pressure and volume changes in the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta, during the cardiac cycle. Cardiac cycle

Timing: Avg: 0.85s Atria   Ventricles 
        0.15s systole   diastole 
        0.30s diastole   systole 
        0.40s diastole   diastole 
diastole = relaxation: fill with blood; decrease pressure; increase volume 
systole = work: pump out blood; increase pressure; decrease volume 

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H.5.3 Outline the mechanisms that control the heart beat including SA node, AV node, and conducting fibres in the ventricular walls. Heart beat control:

pacemaker (sinoatrial / SA node)  impulse across atria  atria contract 
atrioventricular / AV node  receive stimuli from SA node  purkinje fibres  ventricles contract 

H.5.4 Outline atherosclerosis and the causes of coronary thrombisis. Atherosclerosis:

plaque buildup inside blood vessels 
causes blood vessels to be less flexible and constricted 
can inhibit blood flow if blockage occurs 

Coronary thrombosis:

clot blocks coronary artery 
blood cannot reach part of heart 
result: seizure or dying of heart muscle 

H.5.5 Discuss factors which affect rates of coronary heart disease. Rate of coronary heart disease increases with:

hypertension (high blood pressure)  obesity 
atherosclerosis (plaque buildup)  saturated fat intake 
age  cholesterol 
male  genetic predisposition 

H.5.6 Outline the way in which tissue fluid and lymph are formed in body tissues. Tissue fluid / lymph formation:

capillaries lose 1% of carried fluid 
lymph system returns lost fluid to blood 

- blood capillaries lymph capillaries subclavian vein circulatory system

H.5.7 Outline the transport functions of the lymphatic system. Lymphatic system:

transports fats 
fights infection 
increases efficiency of blood transport 
blood in capillary  lymphatic system  subclavian vein 

H.6 Gas Exchange

H.6.1 Define partial pressure. Partial Pressure: the pressure contributed by one gas to the total pressure within a system

H.6.2 Explain the oxygen disassociation curves of adult and fetal haemoglobin, and myoglobin. 4 2 0

2B 

OH GR VE AP 0 0.5 1 O2 partial pressure (atmospheres) O2 disassociation: Least: Adult Hemoglobin Fetal Hemoglobin Most: Myoglobin

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H.6.3 Describe the ways in which carbon dioxide is carried by the blood including the action of carbonic anhydrase, the chloride shift and buffering by plasma proteins. CO2 in bloodstream:

HbCO2 - carbamino hemoglobin 
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 - catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase 
H2CO3  H+ + CO3- - disassociation in water 

Buffering by Plasma Proteins:

H+ ions  acidic 
H2CO3-  absorb excess ions 

Chloride Shift:

chloride move into Hb 
H2CO3- move out  buffer 

H.6.4 Explain the role of the Bohr shift in the supply of oxygen to respiring tissues.

Bohr shift: equilibrium shift in hemoglobin saturation 
pH in lungs is 7.4; 37C 
pH in body is 7.38; 38C 
in body: CO2  carbonic acid  lower pH  more O2 freed (Bohr shift) 

H.6.5 Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the human lungs including the action of the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles (cross reference 5.4.3). Inhalation:

diaphram contracts 
external intercostal muscles pull chest up and out 
abdominal muscles contract 

Exhalation:

diaphram relaxes 
if controlled, internal intercostal muscles pull chest in 
abdominal muscles relax 

H.6.6 Outline the possible causes of lung cancer and asthma and their effects on the gas exchange system. Lung Cancer:

caused by smoking, carcinogens, radiation 
tumor may block / constrict airway 
causes less efficient gas exchange 

Asthma:

constriction of bronchioles; may close completely 
less air reaches aveoli 
gas exchange becomes inefficient or absent 
caused by allergic reaction / smooth muscle reaction (mediated by histamine) 

H.6.7 Describe the technique of mouth to mouth resuscitation.

93 Mouth to Mouth Resuscitation:

pinch nose 
form tight seal with mouth 
blow 
1st time = 2 breaths 
after, 1 breath per 5 s for adult; 3s for child 
release nose between breaths 
works b/c exhalation has O2 inside 
dont give pure O2 b/c want to encourage respiratory center to breathe on own 

H.6.8 Explain the problem of gas exchange at high altitudes and the way the body acclimatizes. Gas exchange at high altitudes:

lower pressure; lower O2 content 
kidney secretes REF (renal erythropoetic factor)  increase hemoglobin production