SL Psychology Notes

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Psychology - the scientific study of behavior and mental processes; humans and animals

As psychologists, the steps of study are:
1. Observe
  1. nervousness; body language
  2. appearance
  3. voice quality (speak softly, loud, etc.)
  4. eye contact
  5. look for marks (bruises, etc.)
2. jot down all observations
3. explaining
  - Although it may be hard to do so, try to explain why the person is the way he/she is. For example, not bathing could mean depression (by divorce, etc.)
4. predict what will happen to the person with counseling and without counseling
5. help the patient to control his/her own behavior

Dillon's case (for the IB exam)

humanistic perspective
opinion area for attachment
Dillon has reactive-attachment disorder
right after birth, there is no bond with another person
communication (crying, smiling, etc) was ignored
physically neglected (he was only fed when the mother felt like it, etc)
wasn't taken out of his home until he was 2 years old
he was in and out of 7 foster homes in one year
he has sociopathic tendency; has no conscience or guilt
no eye contact
setting/watching fires --- pyromania tendencies
very violent; anything can be used by him as a weapon
threatened to kill his parents in their sleep
doesn't like being held
cruelty to animals

How psychology is a natural science

how the brain relates to behavior
Autopsies
severe blows to the head cause abnormal behavior
collection of data, etc (all steps to science research) are involved
surveys are taken
what do people want?
how many people per family?
comparisons of behaviors, etc
research also done with experiments
child abuse
trauma

Divisions of Psychology

clinical psychologists (largest group)
treat people with problems like traumas
help people adjust to life through things like ink blots, in-depth interviews, etc.(hospitals etc)
counseling psychologists
similar to clinical psychology but don't work with serious problems (totally psychotic patients); usually work with business and other groups
school psychologists
helps students with their problems (family, teacher, etc)
gives IQ and achievement tests
educational psychologists
deal with entire population instead of individual students
developmental psychologists
deal with changes throughout the life span
physical changes
emotional changes
cognitive changes (mental images of the world; thought changes)
social changes (formation of bonds between people and changes; independence and specific friends; deepening friendships)
nature vs nurture
personality psychologists
looks at gender rolls
social psychologists
people's behavior in social situations and how they change with the situation
bystander dilemma
sport psychologists
industrial psychologists
health psychologists
relationship between mind and body
placebos and medicine
forensic psychologists
threats
works with police

Psychoanalytic Psychology

Sigmund Freud
structure of the mind
id = the most primitive part of your personality; contains the basic biological urges (to gain sexual pleasure, survival at all costs, etc); it operates on the pleasure principle and doesn't think about long term consequences.
ego = operates on the reality principle; wants to satisfy the id but also wants to work with super ego
super ego = decides what is right and wrong; hold values, morals, and rules received from society and family.
Freud's psycho-sexual stages of development : pleasure sensations in different parts of the body at different times
1) Oral stage - birth to 1 yr - put everything in mouth
breast feeding = physical closeness
excessive gratification or frustration can lead to an oral personality
2) Anal stage - 18 mo to 3 yr - anus is focus of sexual gratification
potty training period
can lead to anal personality
3) Phallic stage - about 5 yr to 7 yr - focus is on the genitals
start questioning about the body and parents should tell the truth
involved in Oedipus and Electra complexes
Freud said that all males have sexual feelings for their mothers and viewed their fathers as competitors for that attention
Electra complex for females is when they fear that castration by their father has already occurred
divorces causes problems with Oedipus complex. However, the male will eventually take on the father's values.
4) Latency stage - about 5 yr to 11 yr
sexuality is dormant of a while
need to develop close relationship with people of the same sex
5) Genital - around 11 to 18 yr
sexual energy is invested in mature genital relations
sexual energy that can't be expressed sexually are expressed non-sexually
flirting
sports (sublimation)
*powerful part of society structure

Psychosocial stages of development

Erik Erikson
1) Trust vs mistrust - birth to 18 mo
parents take care of the needs of the child - trust
mistrust - needs are neglected
2) Autonomy vs shame and doubt - 1 yr to 3 yr
autonomy - trying to walk, talk, explore, say 'no'
doubt - kids learn to doubt their abilities and themselves
3) Initiative vs guilt - 3 yr to 5 yr
testing reality - constant questioning, disobeying
high imagination
imitate adult behavior (old siblings have more power than parents)
parents strict and don't allow spontaneity
4) Industry vs inferiority - 6 yr to 11 yr
academic competence - reading, etc
social competence - sociogram
physical ability - excessive competition with Little League and such
5) Identity vs identity confusion - 12 yr to 18 yr
Who am I? Personality; how you got your personality; where you fit in; the past
negative - failure of society to provide clearly defined roles (social class, racial, etc)
formation of cliques - provides standards such as dress, behavior, weekend activities, speech, etc.
6) Intimacy vs isolation - 19 yr to 25 yr
ability to establish close personal relationships with both sexes
some suffer from fear of vulnerability
psychological relations - formal rather than warm relations
7) Generativity vs stagnation - 35 yr to 50 yr
mid-life crisis - productivity (need to feel that whatever is done has a purpose to the world)
need creativity
stagnation - focus is on the self
failing to master developmental task
8) Ego integrity vs despair - 50 yr to death
acceptance of dominance of ideal of one's culture
sense of continuity with past, present, and future
life has meaning
need to be needed and helping the next generation
despair - unable to find meaning in life (highest rate of suicide rate); lack of tradition
for the Erikson stages, the ages will vary among differing people

Freudian methodology

Freudian slip
subconscious thoughts coming out
Dream interpretation
Freud believe it was the royal road to the unconscious
every single dream matters
keeping a dream journal is helpful for remembering dreams and solving problems through them
reoccurring dreams are something your conscious is trying to tell you
possible interpretations
nakedness - praise (want)
death of loved one - want them to die
missed bus, etc. - missing out on life
dreams enhances reality
help work out life
other people in dreams represent the different aspects of life
time of the day = time in life
men and women have different dreams
colors = emotions
feelings upon awakening represent feelings of dreams
Freud never took notes
He was an armchair scientist, meaning that he did no experiments, graphs, etc
He went about his work by taking information from his clients and generalizing it.
His clients were middle-aged, Victorian, hysterical women. He had no info on the lower class.
Freud took no criticism from anyone. For example, he always had a cigar, and while his theories would say that he had an anal personality, he says that 'sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.'

Erikson's Methodology

Erikson acknowledged that he owed Freud.
He used psychoanalysis for individuals and groups
He believed that you must look at culture and that the time period matters.
Examples: women's roles; societal values
Participant observation
Acknowledged normal, neurotic, and disadvantage individuals
Freud did not
Believed psycho-historical analysis
famous people and how they changed history
Martin Luther
Adolf Hitler (time, culture, background)
Gandhi
wrote Gandhi's Truth, which won the Pulitzer
interview with children in form of playing
*now children's artwork is analyzed

Application of Psycho-dynamic Perspective

Freud said that biology is supreme - instincts drive the system
he would look at violence rate and wars
also said personal reflection not accurate because the true cause of actions are hidden in the unconscious
Psychoanalysis with art and literature
Freud would say that the artist's work reflect his/her own inner conflicts
certain paintings where everyone likes it is because it picks up an unconscious chord
Shakespeare through Freud's eyes
Why did Hamlet wait until the 5th act to avenge his father? He wants his father to die; relates back to the Oedipus complex ---> relation to the conflict
Freud and Little Red Riding Hood
wolf equals male sexuality
Freud and popular movies
Clueless relates to Electra complex
Little Mermaid to Electra complex
Beauty and the Beast
Freud and humor
humor an outlet for discharging pent up psychic energy and diminishing the importance of potentially damaging events
one of the main signs of a healthy ego is the ability to laugh at one's own mistakes
social acceptability to forbidden feelings/attitude
way of countering anxiety by reasserting mastery over a helpless situation
feelings of helplessness have been found to characterize anxiety and depression
one sign is inability to appreciate and/or use humor

Freud and gender issue
anatomy is destiny, it ignores the power of culture to create the difference between male and female
Karen Horney had problems with Freud's theories because of all the derogatory insinuations toward women
penis envy is not right, its power envy
rejected his patient's account of child abuse
women were actually expressing unconscious fantasy
Freud didn't like women but became famous by them through psychoanalysis
Breuer, Joseph - 1842 to 1925
Freud was impressed with Breuer's the 'talking-cure'
'talking-cure' allowed patients to relive hysterical symptoms
remember traumatic memories
used hypnosis
used for : getting into the unconsciousness; bringing back memories either forgotten or repressed; curing phobias; quitting smoking, addictions; weight loss; crime
Freud realized that not all people can be hypnotized. Thus, he used free association and dream interpretation.
transference - another central feature of psychoanalysis; where you transfer your feelings onto your therapist; usually appears as a parent
positive - work through problem in safe environment without anxiety
initially, psychoanalysis was very intensive --- several times a week for a year with up to 50 hr per week. Now, it is once a week. The therapist and patient come up with a plan/time limit
Defense mechanisms
structure of mind - ego's way of dealing with anxiety : by using defense mechanisms; may involve some distortion of reality
repression - ego avoids anxiety by banishing conscious thoughts to the unconscious - very powerful. Triggered by association or Freudian slip. Used as protection especially for young children.
denial - person denies facts of reality because its too hard to face - example: death of a child/loved one, child in trouble or growing up, major loss (of job, financial, etc.), affairs, addictions, 17 to 18 - pregnancy, loss of family, eating disorders
projection - assigning to others characteristic or motives that an individual would prefer not to recognize in themselves - hunger; tiredness
intellectualization - detachment from a painful or anxiety producing situation; used abstract terms and ignore emotional component - help to think rationally through a situation, numbness, vulnerability
rationalization - consist of giving a rationale to an extremely motivated action - seen in young children. For example, a child hitting another because 'he's annoying.'
reaction/formation - developing a strong tendency to do something which is the opposite of a tendency you have but dislike in yourself. Examples: overly nice vs real tendency to be mean; someone who dates all the time may be denying homosexual feelings
psychotherapy - some believes that change is contingent on a client's understanding of his/her unconscious conflict. Brings the conflict to the surface to be understood and treated. Investigates the relationship between a person's past conflicts to current conflicts

Humanistic perspective

Evolved in response to the other two main perspectives which had dominated psychology for years
psychodynamic - human at mercy of unconscious
behaviourial - view humans in terms of stimulus and response; controlled by environment
also know as the third force
sees humans as free to choose their own path, have the ability to grow and see full potential
1950's and 1960's was when it developed
Carl Rogers - 1902 to 1987
crucial part of someone's subjective experience is the person's self concept
developed in early childhood
eventually come to include one's sense of one's self as in 'I' as a agent who takes or doesn't take action and makes or doesn't make decisions
to achieve a solid sense of personal self worth the child required unconditional positive regard
accepted and loved without conditions or reservations
the concept of hating the sin, but loving the sinner
conditional love - there's a requirement for love and acceptance; high grades; jobs; family business, cliques, music; most parents do set some condition to love but if a child suppress some aspect of his/herself in order to feel love and accepted, that could lead to a s sense of confusion and doubt of one's real self worth
your self worth concept influences how you treat your environment
some retain a self concept at odds with their true feelings in order to win approval of others and "fit in"
repressing true feelings and impulse eventually cause alienation from self and limit potential for self-actualization
Incongruence
the gap between a person's self concept and his/her actual experiences
can cause chronic anxiety and mental disorders
strong self concept is flexible and allows a person to confront new experiences and ideas without feeling threatened
also plays an important role in social perception (the process by which we form impressions of others)
attribution- how one explain other's behaviors; influenced by self concept
Julian Rotter
if you have a positive self concept, you behave in ways that bring it out
how people habitually think about their own experience - 'i' and 'e'
'i' - internal; think that you control events
'e' - external; view events as outside of their control
depending on whether you're 'i' or 'e', you affect your attitude
there is a gender difference - men are usually 'e' and women are usually 'i'
Hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow - 1908 to 1970
people will only strive for higher order needs when lower order needs are met. However, some needs take priority over others
needs motivate your behavior
Level 1 - physiological needs - the needs of the body such as a house for shelter and clothes for warmth
Level 2 - safety needs - the need to feel the world is predictable, safe, and secure; inner-city kids doing homework in bath tubs because it is the in the center of the house and safe; safety at home and at school
Level 3 - belongingness and love - the need to love others and to be loved and accepted by others; two way process
Level 4 - esteem needs - self esteem, achievements, competence, and recognition
Level 5 - aesthetic and cognitive needs - knowledge, understanding, beauty, and order
Level 6 - self actualization - the need to live up to your unique potential; 1% reaches it
efficient perception of reality - comfortable with reality
simplistic and naturalness - not artificial
likes privacy
person can be alone with their thoughts
strongly ethical with definite moral standards
humor not hostile - laugh with someone and not at them
original, inventive, spontaneous, and fresher than others
doing things out of the ordinary
exist well within the culture but they live by the laws of their own standards
*self actualized people - Beethoven, Eleanor Roosevelt, Einstein, and Gandhi
all have had peek experiences
events of significance has happened to them with impacts at the time and beyond
examples - near death experiences; physical problems; saving a life; death of a loved one; birth of a child
What distinguishes the individualistic and collectivist views of self?
cross-cultural psychologists
Triandis
looked at how culture changes a person
individualistic person and culture
give priority to personal goals and define their identity mostly in terms of their personal attributes
strive for personal control and individual achievements
divorce rate, child care, eating dinner together, nursing homes
collectivist
goals given to priority of one's group, which tends to be work groups and extended family, and identify self accordingly
examples - 'I am the child of . . . '
suffer loss of identity when they move to a foreign land
what's important is we and not me
by group identity, collectivists gain strong sense of belonging, set of values, network of caring individuals, and assurance of security
gangs
"No wonder that the modern world colonization was not led by the Asians, who were reluctant to cut social and family ties, but by the Europeans who were highly individualistic"
countries colonized by the Europeans are individualistic
individualistic cultures give priority to personal identity by putting personal names first
Cousins - 1989 - conducted at study that compared US students to Japanese and Chinese students
asked students to complete the phrase "I am . . . "
US students completed the phrase with personal traits
Japanese and Chinese students were more likely to identify social traits
second generation immigrants lose heritage
Popenoe - 1993
individualistic people easily move out of social groups
free to move from job to job
after college - the average individualist has 7 jobs
they also feel free to leave extended families
individualists
people in competitive individualistic cultures have more personal freedom and take pride in personal achievements
less inclined to stay in one geographical are
offer a smorgasbord of life styles
ethic groups, sexual orientation, job choice
individuals can construct their own identity
lonelier, more alienated, high rate of homicide
prone to stress related diseases
higher divorce rates
Kashima - 1992
collectivist culture place priority on personal harmony and allowing others to save face
direct confrontations and blunt honesty are rare
what people say reflects not just what they think but what they presume people feel
athletes take more pleasure in their team's victory
finds satisfaction in advancing group interest even at the expense of personal needs
Seligman - 1989
"Rampant individualism carries with it two seeds of its own destruction. First, the society that exalts individuals to the extent ours now does will be ridden with depression. Meaninglessness. This occurs when there is no attachment to something larger than you are."
Client-centered therapy
an approach to counseling and psychotherapy that places much of the responsibility of the treatment process on the patient with the therapist taking a non-directive role
clients feel in control and are more likely willing to share
clients may also try to avoid a topic/subject
the approach may not work for patients whose problem is being control-freaks
developed in the 1930's by Karl Rogers
also known as non-directive or Rogerian therapy
Rogers felt that therapy need to take place in a positive environment developed by a close personal relationship with the therapist
He introduced the word 'client' in place of the word 'patient'
he rejected traditional authoritarian therapist-patient relationships
implications of equality
therapist's job is to ask clarifying questions to help
3 parts for success
genuineness - people nurture our growth by being genuine
therapist also needs to open-up a little and drop the professional facade
unconditional positive regard where the therapist accepts the client for who he/she is - non-judgmental
empathy where the therapist try to look at things from client's point of view (done by active listening)
listen to problems without interrupting; understanding
when being empathetic, never say "I completely understand."
2 primary goals
increase self-esteem
greater openness to experience
changes hope to occur
increase relationship to actual and idealized self
more comfortable relationships
increase capacity to experience and express emotion at the moment they occur
Rogers also pioneered concept of encounter groups (support groups)
help see that you are not alone in your suffering
equality
relation between people
Attachment
Mary Aimsworth
definition of attachment : emotional tie that is formed between one animal or person and another specific individual
attachment is essential to the very survival of the infant
Spitz study : Orphans of WWII were taken in. All of their physical needs were met, but none of their emotional needs were met. About 1/3 die.
often things like an old woman dies and her cat of 20 or so years dies immediately after
2 behaviors that defines attachment
attempt to maintain contact or nearness
babies crying when far from parents, dogs following people, etc
show signs of anxiety when separated
kids throwing tantrums when parents leave, animals becoming destructive
Bowlby
attachment research with one-way mirrors
looked at securely vs insecurely attached babies
securely attached
cries less often and more likely to show affection
cooperate better (for dressing, diaper change, etc)
mother/care giver is base for exploration
more likely to be emotionally warm
popular with peers
more enthusiastic
happier
show leadership skills (great responsibility, hand criticism)
academically persistent
curious
tend to be self-reliant
Aimsworth's 3 stages of attachment
Initial pre-attachment phase - birth to 3 mo - indiscriminate attachment
Attachment in the making - 3 mo to 4 mo - picks a select group to attach to; familiarity
Clear-cut attachment - 6 mo to 7 mo - dependent upon primary care giver
Harry Harlow
took Rhesus monkeys away from mother at birth and raised them with a wired mother with a bottle and a cloth, soft-fleece mother. Harlow scares the monkey in the theory that they would run to the wired mother for the bottle, but he was wrong, and they ran to the cloth mother instead.
says that everyone needs contact comfort (was more important than food)

Conrad Lorenz
imprinting - first thing the baby sees is what it attaches to
fixed-action pattern - FAP - baby follows what it believes is its mother
goslings' honks sound like baby's crying
child abuse
break in attachment
don't know the real numbers : unreported cases, parents only bring children in when the child won't stop crying and that's how people find out about the child being abused
6 kids die everyday from abuse
3 types of abuse
physical - anything a parent can do to the child
burning, broken bones, etc
emotional - constant belittling and often its over things that the child can't help
one of the things said is that "You were never wanted."
some say that emotional abuse is harder to get over than physical
The Child Called It - David L.
sexual - usually the cause is that the abuser needs to feel in control
reasons for abuse
parents abused when they were kids
out-of-controlled disciplining
mentally ill
they don't know what to expect at certain ages
projection
substance abuse
divorce
mothers are the overwhelming main abusers
usually single mothers who claims they have no money for a babysitter for relief, etc
Cross Cultural Studies of Attachment
*!Kung babies - the first year of life, they are in extremely close contact with their mothers. They can nurse whenever they want. Almost like the babies will get fed prior to demand. Westerners say these babies are spoiled. However, by the time they are one, they are totally independent because all the attachment needs are met.
*Russian babies - overprotective parents. At 18 months, children feed, dress themselves, and walk. >From preschool on, they are assigned communal chores. Cooperation is stressed at an early age. The best toys are the ones that require more than one person. Tendency to be independent.

Dimensions of child-rearing

1) Warm vs cold parenting
warm parents
patient
physical affection
smile more often
talking, enjoying with child
cold parents
less eye-contact
complaints rather than praise for the child
pushing child away
2) Restrictiveness vs permissiveness
restrictive parents
have many rules because they want control
kids feel loved because the rules show the parents care
permissiveness
parents have rules that aren't enforced
lots of conflicts about rules
kids from these homes tend to have less self-esteem

Attachment break in divorce

Nicholi
with divorce comes lasting consequences for the child
3 yr following a divorce, 50% of fathers never see their children again
8 reactions following parent-children separation
1) Anger
anger rather than depression
2) Futile attempts at reconciliation
child calls one parent and say that the other parent wants to talk
child still try to reconcile parents even if the other parent is re-married
3) Fantasy experiences
child talk and act as if the other parent is still there
4) Irrational guilt
child believing that it was somehow their fault
5) Decrease in impulse control
will do things that they don't normally do
6) Decline in school performance
dropping grades, getting in trouble with other students
7) Low self-esteem
decrease in belief in self
8) Increase in peer dependency
no longer feel that they can rely on parents
Americans spend less time with their children than any other nation
Nicholi hates the latchkey program because of the separation from parents
50% of hospital beds are for psych patients today, but Nicholi believes that it will jump to 95% by about 2010 because of the high divorce rate
first marriages - 7 yr to 10 yr; second marriages - 3 yr to 5 yr
living together before marriage doesn't work because people may still be too formal in their living to truly know them
Do early experiences leave their marks in the brain?
Rosenzweig and David Kretch - took baby rats and put some in a very deprived environment. The other half of the rats lived in a DZ-esque environment. Then, the 2 men cut open the rats' brains. The DZ rats had heavier and thicker brain cortexes. The experiment was repeated several times with the same results. For learning, the environment makes a difference. The 2 men massaged and touched rats and premature babies. They gained weight quicker and developed faster neurologically.
What are the major issues in developmental psychology?
nature vs nature
continuity vs stages
stability vs change
Do personality traits persist throughout life or do you become different persons as you age?
Green - 1991 - Is behavior due to prenatal hormones?
pregnant monkeys were injected with male hormones. When the babies where born, the females exhibited male traits. They were then treated as males and eventually become males.
teratogens - harmful agents that pass through the placenta
FAS - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - 1 out of 750 babies are affected
leading cause of retardation
crack, marijuana
nicotine - mothers who smoke have low birth rates; the children have high respiratory illness; reduce flow of oxygen to the brain
What are some of the newborn's capabilities?
come equip with reflexes suited for survival
look at human face longer than a bull's eyes and turn in direction of familiar voice
move away from heat
Rotting reflex - stroke baby's cheeks and baby starts sucking for food
studies of twins
selective breeding varies heredity but not environment
psychologists and psychiatrists loves studying twins, especially identical twins
separated identical twins at birth and raised in different environment
separation of twins and triplets due to adoption - people want kids and a set of twins can make 2 couple happy
Bouchard, Thomas
read article in magazine about Jim twins and starts researching them
mothers give birth to the twins and gives them up for adoption. They met each other at 39 and had amazingly similar medical histories. Both lost and gained 10 lb at the same time. Both suffered from 'heart-attacks' at the same time. At 18, both started suffering from headaches at about the same time each day.
studied 5 dozen pairs of twins raised apart with his colleagues. All twins had similar tastes, abilities, personalities, fears, etc.
Sweden has 23000 registered twins that they study
Twins raised separately are more similar than those raised together because they don't need to individualize
Adopted children
child abuse and neglect is rare with adoption; divorce is also rare
13% of fathers pay child support month after month
nearly all adoptive children thrive
adoptive parents are carefully screened
What social influences help explain gender differences?
Gender Identity
one's sense of being at male or female
Social Learning Theory - children learn gender link behavior through rewards and punishment
emotional - boys are encouraged to not cry when they are hurt; its almost like girls are encouraged to cry
men have less communication skills
they are also prone to heart attacks, high blood pressure, etc due to keeping feelings inside
physical - boys roughhouse; boys will get bikes earlier (motor skills); cuddling and kissing stops earlier with boys; independence (curfews, boys can go places alone); parents encourage males to take risks
later on - males are still taking risks and climbing the social ladder
they are independent
By age 3, language forces children to organize their world according to gender
languages - one male in a group and the entire group is made masculine
Adolescence
life between childhood and adulthood
time of great transition
Jewish Bar Mitzvah at 13
celebrations to mark coming of age - important to help enforce that adulthood is different
G. Stanley Hall - 1904
one of the first psychologists to describe adolescence as "the tension between biological maturity and social independence." He said that it is a "time of great stress."
psychologists say that adolescence is marked by great mood swings
don't yet have adult worries
"time of deep, rewarding friendships"
"time of heightened idealism"
seeing life's exciting opportunities
time when adolescence do not know how or where they fit in
major physical changes in adolescence
begins at puberty when reproduction is possible
surge of hormones
11 yr for girls; 13 yr for boys
boys can grow up to 5 in/yr; girls - 3 in/yr
awkward and clumsy
primary sex characteristic
reproductive organs develop
secondary sex characteristics
deepened voice
hair distribution
breasts
menstruation occurs by 14 yr for girls
growth spurts vary dramatically
growth variation can have psychological impacts
Mary Cover Jones - 1950's
what happens with early maturation of kids
boys - self-assured, independent, stronger, more athletic, more popular
girls - feels out of touch, suffers embarrassment, don't care for sexual attention, starts hanging out with older crowd and experience out of bound experiences
during teen years, experiences is self-focused
during adolescent, experiences feel unique
adolescence - logical thinking enables them to detect inconsistencies between other's ideals and actions
Piaget - "Children's moral reasoning is built on their cognitive development."
In Europe, there's a woman who has a near-death disease. There was one drug the doctor believed could save her. The drug was very expensive, and the druggist was charging 10 times the regular price. The woman's husband, Heinz, went around to the neighbors to ask for money, but he could only get $1000. He goes to the druggist to ask for a deal, but the druggist refused. Heinz then broke into the store and killed the druggist to get the drug.
Kohlberg would ask children if Heinz should have done what he did and why. Answers vary depending on age.
3 basic levels of moral reasoning
during adolescent years, people in western culture tryout different selves in different situations
Erikson - "All searching for an ego-identity."
different dress, personality, etc
done for acceptance
traditional, less individualistic culture tell children who they are rather than letting them decide on their own.

Gender and social connectiveness

gender differences surface early and can be viewed in play
boys typically play in large groups, little discussion, and has a focus activity
girls play in smaller groups (often with one friend) and less competitive. As they age, they spend more time with friends and less time alone than boys
women tend to be interdependent : conversation is used to explore relationship
men use conversation for problem solving
women tend to have a close bond with another woman
men are not closely bonded
physical changes in adulthood
for women: menopause - reduction in estrogen
some women, it does cause psychological disorder
aside from stiff shoulders and headaches, Japanese women experience little side-effects
Livingston
looked at 85 successful middle-aged men and women's journey into adulthood. They had to come to grip with their fame and fortune dreams being done. After mid-like crisis, etc, they form strong bonds/attachment and more compassion
for culture: In Jordan, 40% of brides are teens, and in Hong Kong it is 3%. In Western Europe - less than 10% of men over 65 remain in the work force, Hong Kong - 16%; Japan - 36%; Mexico - 69%
Animals with addiction
Olds at Neurological Institute
Threaded an electrode into reticular formation and see what happens when an electric shot is given in that area. Electrodes bended and ended up in the hypothalamus. The rats pressed the button for electric shock for several times a minute for hours until exhaustion. The rats became addicted to the shock.
Kornetsky
look at biology of reinforcement, not psychological aspect of addiction
cocain - rats chose coke over food until they died
even if the presence of pain, the rats will crawl to the drugs
Siegel
addiction, overdose, and death
got rats addicted to morphine. Then, the rates were placed in a different location and given the usual dose of morphine. Some of the rats died of overdose.
depending upon the condition, the environment affects how drugs work
Pavlov
looked at conditions with addiction
give a tone to animals and then it gets a shot of apomorphine (which causes restlessness, vomiting, and salivation). After repeated pairing of this, just the tone alone will cause all the affects of the drug to start. The experiment was repeated with rats and various other animals
The conditioned response did not always replicate the drug's effect. So, he took a dog and gave it epinephrine repeatedly. The drug increases heart rate, but after usage, the heart rate went down. The body is trying to compensate for the effects of the drug.
O'Brien
injected rats with morphine under specific environmental conditions. When all the rats were withdrawn from the drugs, they were put into the same conditions again. They either had to go through detox again or die.
to be cured, the environment must be changed : move to another neighborhood or city
Seligman
looked at stress and the immune system
injected rats with tumor causing drugs and gave them shocks from which they could not escape. A high number developed cancer. The second group got the same treatment, but they could move from the shocks. A very low number developed cancer. The last group wasn't given any shocks.
Dr. Locke
stress affects the immune system's natural killer cells. Everyone has stress, but how you deal with it is what matters.
Adder and Cohen
rats were given saccharin in sweetened water and given an injection of a drug that made them throw up. The rats stopped drinking the water but eventually began to drink again, this time without the shots. About 40 days after, the rats died at high rates.
Seligman 1975
2 groups of dogs, A & B. Strapped down individually to where they can't move and were given strong electrical shocks. Group A learned that they could push a panel and stopped the shocks. Group B had no control such as that. The dogs were taken out to a new environment where they were held within a 'cage' with a barrier which could be easily escapable by jumping over it. Group A escaped, but Group B whimpered and didn't escape. This is an example of learned helplessness : abuse, no control in nursing homes, army/boot camps
Romanian babies
Man walking down the beach and notice a little kid far off picking up something and throwing it into the ocean. As he gets closer, he sees thousands of starfish beached, and he tells the kid that it won't matter what she does. She picks up a star fish and said that it mattered to that one.
Since 1990, 3000 babies have been adopted into our country.
Alex - no stimulation leads to attachment disorder. Born premature because of a botched abortion. Outwardly, he showed no sign of his disorder, but he felt no pain. His parents gave him up because they were afraid he would hurt his sister.
Drue - he had empty eyes. He sat and did not play nor talk. He never had his senses stimulated, but he is learning. His senses are being stimulated and there is a shine is his eyes.
Sarah - she did not speak until 5. She showed that attachment disorder shows biological differences. The brain activity is just not present in some areas of her brain. The brain development must be developed at 1 yr old or around there. With Sarah, other parts of her brain are compensating for her loss.
3 main areas that institutional living affects - cognitive development, social development, and physical development
Julianna - shows so many signs of attachment disorder, but her brain isn't compensating like Sarah's
Jessica - was in Boucharhes orphanage until she was 4 and showed no sign of any disorder. She said she was always hungry.
Romania has had an increase in birth since Nicholi the Dictator
Willi - in the worst orphanage until age 11. The kids were shaved, naked, malnourished, not taught to think, and kept in cages. He had polio but no medical care. First year in the US, he could read. He helped bring his friend Christina over.
Isabella - 17 yr old; is able to write letters and speak English
4% of Romanian babies are adopted each year
symptoms of attachment disorder
superficially engaging or charming
affectionate with strangers but not with parents; indiscriminate affection
no eye contact
self destructive; destruction of self and property
hurt animals
poor peer relationships
no remorse or conscience
want to control everything but has poor self control
gorging food

Cognition with animals

Easter egg hunt with chimps
an experiment takes a chimp and goes through a zigzag course watching another experimenter hid food. Then, the chimp is let go, and almost always, the chimp will find the food. - example of rational thinking skills
Kohler
took a pigeon and taught it to push a box. Then, he dangled a banana in front of the pigeon and taught it to peck at it. The, the box was put under the dangling banana, and the pigeon was put on the box. The pigeon learned to push the box to under the banana.
Menzel
with captive chimpanzees - made sure chimp knew where an experimenter hid food and let chimp out. In the presence of a higher order chimp, the chimp won't go near the food. He then took a language trained chimp and wanted to know if it would sign to the experimenter where the food is. It did. If the experimenter shared the food, then the chimp would keep telling him where the food is. If the experimenter didn't share, the chimp would either not tell where the food is or tell the wrong places.

Basic assumptions of the 4 perspectives

Cognitive - mental images, information processing, thinking
key assumption - perceptions and thoughts influence behavior
John Piaget
Humanistic - subjective experiences
key assumption - people make free and conscious choices based on their unique experiences; free to choose
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
Psychoanalytic - unconscious process and early childhood experiences
key assumption - unconscious motives influence behavior
Sigmund Freud and Eric Erikson
Behaviorism - environmental influences and observational learning
key assumption - personal experiences and reinforcements guide individual development
Bandura's bobo dolls

Elements of the 4 perspectives

Historical and cultural context
- what was going on when the perspective was developing?
- look at culture
Conceptual framework
- key conceptions - example: hierarchy of needs, Erikson's stages, etc.
- how valid are the concepts in explaining behavior?
Basic assumptions
- key assumptions of the 4 perspectives
- link between animal research and humans
Methodology
- strengths and weaknesses of the approach
Applications to psychological issues
- how effective is this perspective in explaining current psychological and social issues?
- how do you help people with psychological disorders?
- if given a current psychological or social issue, how might this perspective describe and interpret that?
Critical evaluation of the perspective?
- find out which one you believe would be the best to help a person?

Crime and Delinquency

factors associated with crime and delinquency
prenatal trauma
substance abuse - FAS, crack, etc.; blows to the stomach
uninhibited temperament
if happy, very expressive with joy
if angry, don't know how to control anger
low IQ
low empathy
inability to relate to others
rude, say wrong things at wrong time
delayed gratification
immediate want - don't understand that you have to wait
poor child rearing
parents don't understand what to expect at what age
abuse and neglect
attachment disorder
unstable family situation
people moving in and out
move often
poor peer relationship
high level of alienation
TV viewing
violent shows
model after those violent characters
early maturation for females

high levels of testosterone
the higher the level of testosterone, the higher the need
XYY males
extra testosterone
prior observation of models for violence
reward/reinforce child for excessive violence
drug and alcohol abuse
person cannot think in a rational manner
sexual arousal connected with violence
psychomotor seizure
break in circuits (1 in 100000)
Environmental factors associated with crime and delinquency
poverty
extreme frustration in attempts to get out of situation and lose the faith to obtain the goals

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Category: IB Psycology

SL Psychology Notes

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