Judesmunky - Papers 2 and 3

From KstructIB

HISTORY NOTES JBG/JEF SET

By Jude L, Up to date as of final exams (last version for a while…) �Contents

RUSSIA 3 AII, AIII, Revolutions, Lenin, Stalin

GERMANY 28 Bismarck, WW1, Weimar, Hitler

WW2 37 Appeasement, major campaings

COLD WAR 43 Causes, course and themes

CHINA 54 Qings, Pre Civil War, Mao’s era in power

VIETNAM 84 French, US involvment, civil war

ESSAY PLANS 92 Paper 2, Paper 3

�RUSSIAN HISTORY 1815-DEATH OF STALIN

DATES

1801-1825: Alexander 1 1825-1855: Nicholas 1 1854-56: Crimean War 1855:Alexander II comes to power 1856: AII speech to nobility re. Emancipation and reforms, Treaty of Paris 1857:Reform plan of action proposed 1859: Representatives to Moscow, official emancipation decree, army service reduced 1861 onwards: Emancipation decree Military reform, educational reform 1863: Polish revolt 1864: Zemstva decree, judicial reform, 1865: Censorship laws slackened 1866: First assassination attempt 1870: Marxism in Russia 1871: Great Power conference in London 1873: Three Emperors League with Austria-Hungary and Germany 1874: Populists in the country 1875 onwards: Balkan issues-slavic uprising in Turkey 1876: Serbian uprising 1877: Russia declares war on Turkey 1878: Treaty of San Stefano, Vera Zusilish trial 1881: Alexander II dies, Alexander III comes to power, Russification begins 1887:Universities statute 1890 onwards: Period of industrialisation and urbanisation 1891: Famine 1894: Nicholas II comes to power 1896: Coronation celebrations 1904 May:Russo-Japanese War 1905 Aug 25:Treaty of Portsmouth 1905 Jan:First revolution 1905 Oct: October Manifesto 1906 April: Fundamental laws 1906 April-June: First Duma 1907 Feb-June: Second Duma 1907 Nov-June 1912: Third Duma 1911 Sept: Stolypin murdered, end of land reform 1912 Nov-Aug 1914: Fourth Duma 1914: First World war breaks out 1915: NII becomes supreme commander of the Russian Army 1917 Feb: Second Revolution part one and even earlier... 1917 March 2nd: Tsar Abdicates, beginning of PG 1917 April: April Theses (surprisingly enough...) 1917 June: PG go for major offensive and army gets wasted 1917: August: Kornilov Affair 1917 Oct: Second Revolution part two 1917 Oct: Beginning of ideological period 1918 Jan: Constituent assembly election and dissolution 1918: RSFSR is formed 1918 Aug: Lenin assassination attempt, Red Terror begins 1918 3rd March: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918-1921: Civil War in Russia, Period of War Communism 1920 Feb: Kolchak shot 1920 mid: Won Crimean region 1921 March: Krondstadt mutiny 1921: NEP, ban on factions 1921: Famine 1922 onwards, Lenin’s descent, Stalin’s rise 1922: Red Terror 1922: Treaty of Rapallo 1922: Stalin becomes Gen Sec 1924: Lenin dies 1924 onwards: Stalin consolidates his power 1926: Trotsky is falling from power 1927: Failed communist uprising in China, Britain and Russia break off diplomatic relations, collectivisation piloted late 1927: Collectivisation is made official policy 1929: Collectivisation introduced across Russia 1931: Stalin’s 50-100 yrs speech 1931-34: Famine 1934: Purges begin 1934 Dec: Kirov assassinated 1934: Decree against Terrorism act 1936: Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov killed 1936: Collectivisation is complete 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis 1936: The originally named ‘1936 constitution’ 1937: Japan joins the Rome-Berlin Axis 1938: Yezhow, Tomsky, Bukharin killed 1939 August: Molotov/Ribbentropp pact 1941: Trosky killed with an ice-pick in Mexico 1946: Post-war five year plan is undertaken 1949: Leningrad party leadership is purged 1953 March: Stalin dies

�EVENTS and POLICIES

ALEXANDER I: 1801-1825 AI was known for foreign policy, fights Napoleon for 14 years, victorious, Russia is a powerful and influential nation.

NICHOLAS I: 1825-1855 Extremely reactionary, revolutions in 1821, 1830, 1848. Fights Crimean War and is losing when dies.

ALEXANDER II: 1855-1881. Became Tsar aged 38. Military education, political experience, seemed to be well prepared for the job. Ideas moulded by the events of 1948-i.e. riots, liberalism, unrest. Made him more conservative, reactionary and traditional. He was more humane ad sensitive than his father. Similar to Gorbachev in some ways. Wants to reform everything except the autocratic system,so is basically doomed to failure. Mild reforms in first year raised expectations. Tried to be autocratic when autocratism is dying, gave out freedom in very small doses, very naïve, didn’t realise that repression only buys time and didn’t judge the national mood very well. PROBLEMS FACED IN 1855: Different cultural groups and nationalities spread over huge country with communication difficulties. Poor relations with countries on Western borders. In arctic circle so low agricultural productivity with land that is frozen throughout much of the year, as is the sea. Agricultural nation, not industrialising, low productivity, frequent land redistribution leading to no innovation (odd system whereby land is split between all of the inheritors evenly, meaning that from generation to generation the amount of land available drops dramatically), £144 million pounds in debt, expanding population with landless peasants. Crimean War, behind the western powers in terms of technology and military capablility. Ineffective and poorly trained army. Noble officers and peasant squaddies. 25 years conscription. Conservative and traditional peasants controlled by mir. Land split repeatedly through the nobility. Bureaucracy are extremely corrupt. Form 1/80th of the population (1 million of them in 1880).

SERFS: Basically divided on geographical lines i. State, pay by rent or obrok, ii. Private, owned by landlord, works on his land, pays by labour (barschina). Permission required to get married. Can be exiled or forced to join the army by landlord. 99% of land workers are serfs. System ended in 1861. Ignorant and illiterate, make up 80% of the population. Russia is an agricultural nation, depends on these groups. Little migration, traditional and conservative group. Loves and wants his own land. Religious but dislike church which teaches obedience. Land was often redistributed and was divided up into small strips so that each family had some good fields and some bad ones- this is also bad for production.

MIR: Elder peasant group, ultra-conservative. Landlord deals through the mir. Obeyed and respected by the peasants. Used by the nobles to communicate with the village people. Looks after its interests but also controls it. More important than the individual. The mir made all of the decisions relating to the land.

RUSSIAN CLERGY: Works with nobles and clergy. Catechism, urged obedience to Tsar. Church is viewed as an oppressive thing by the peasants. A reactionary force, eastern form of christianity.

EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS: WHY: Catalyst of the Crimean War ‘War is the locomotive of history’-the war exposes Russian weaknesses in terms of military strength as well as with industry and agricultural production. Russia is behind the West and it is a backwards country. Economic reform before military reform. Treaty of Paris (which ended the Crimean War in 1855) condition-emancipation. The system is inefficient and the people are conservative leading to low production. Emancipation could have come earlier, were it not for the attitude of the peasants, who were extremely fatalistic and conservative. They believed that the problems were on a local scale, and that it was not a national issue which needed to be dealt with centrally. THE CONDITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE RUSSIAN PEASANTRY was a crucial factor in the weakness of the country. It is an agricultural nation, and peasants make up 80% of the population, pay taxes and are locked in serf system. They are vital since they produce grain, the most valuable export. Serfdom is crap because productivity was not increasing with the population. This is a major issue since more than half the peasants are serfs. Poverty for the peasants and debt for nobility were the results of this ineffective system. Did not encourage innovation. Less stability, not enough land, frequent peasant revolts. Serfs cannot leave land without landlord’s permission. Dominated by the mir, who are extremely conservative, as are the peasants. AII saw the discontent in the countryside and realised that emancipation had to be from above not below

HOW WAS EMANCIPATION ACHIEVED? Emancipation seemed progressive (this had long since been the view of the intellectuals), he had to use the defeat in the Crimean War to underline the need for change. He argued that if economic and social reform were to occur, serfdom must end. Put full weight of autocracy behind emancipation. The serfs soon began to believe that emancipation was about to occur, meaning that after a time there was ‘no turning back’. March 1856 made speech to nobility to try and get them onside. Most hoped that he would drop his plans, but were convinced by the ‘from above not below’ argument. Nov 1857 –plan of action.. 1861- Emancipation decree the ‘right of bondage’ was ‘forever abolished’. Serfs to receive land from nobility, nobility to receive compensation ‘Redemption payments’. Unwritten contract with Nobles, convinced them that he was on their side. Mir held land collectively. He used the fact that there was serious unrest in the countryside to convince the nobles that a revolution could come from below. Serfs free to move and trade.

RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION: PEASANTS: Riots followed decree, in 1861 alone there were 499 cases of riots which required army intervention to be stopped. Peasants forced to pay over inflated redemption payments (20% in the first year then 49 annual payments with an interest charge), but felt that the land rightfully belonged to them. Wage labour turned out to be the most effective, particularly in fertile areas. 49 year Redemption payments were too high, mir was a break on innovation, industrial expansion not rapid enough to accommodate landless peasants, the land was apportioned unfairly, the process of land transfer was too lengthy, money was pumped into industry not modernisation. People paid too much for bad land, particularly in non black soil provinces LANDLORDS: not content. Landlord in Poland got a worse deal, due to the 1863 revolt, with redemption payments here being far lower. Began demise of nobility. In short, too much for the nobility, not enough for the radicals, whilst the serfs were angered at being forced to pay redemption payments. The nobility began to rapidly decline, as did its ability to act as a stabilising force in Russian society. Progress was made, but when compared to the other nations of Europe, Russia was still far behind.

DID EMANCIPATION CHANGE ANYTHING? Emancipation basically changed the legal status of many peasants. It did not change the way they farmed the land. The system remained the same, with communal tender and strip farming- a system which had always worked ok because it was implemented on a local scale, and the country is not dependant on internal trade. But emancipation also didn’t face the peasant demands- they wanted the transfer of land without being forced to pay compensation. The fact that the population was increasing so rapidly meant that the impact of this lack of alteration to the system was greater.

REASONS FOR POPULATION GROWTH The Zemstva had brought about some public health improvements in the provinces- there was also a run of good weather and hence better harvests. An unintended consequence of redemption payments was that it increased the population. Villages were taxed communally at this stage, and it was left to the mir to hand over the taxes. The tax burden could be decreased by forming more households and by allowing earlier marriage- this leads to a rapid population expansion. But the problem is that the system has not modernised enough to deal with the increasing demand.

OTHER REFORMS BY AII MOTIVATION: To maintain stability, to modernise Russia and make it a world power once again. Underlying motivation was the need to modernise the army which had been crushed in the Crimea. This was the catalyst for reform. Also the need for internal reform and modernisation. Political reform was not included, although above all Alexander wanted to remain in control without changing his role. He was known as the Reforming Tsar, and he played an important role in pushing through these reforms, but he refused to alter his own role at all.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT 1864: MOTIVATION: Felt that there was administrative inefficiency, but did not want to decentralise too much since this would have lessened his influence and rendered him less powerful. IMPLICATIONS: The decree establishing the Zemstva was published in January 1864. Locally elected councils with jurisdiction over public education, health, local economic development, services. Liberals wanted them to have real power, and they did, but only over certain things. They did not have power for example over taxes as AII thought that this would undermine his own power. 45% nobility, 40% peasants, 15% townspeople and clergy. 1870 saw a similar urban system set up. Set up by Valuiev. Two tier system, district and province. Could always be overruled by the centre of the party. They had no real powers and became a forum for complaining, did ease the governing of the provinces and performed well in the famine. This and the legal reform was not motivated by the military imperatives. Their success demonstrated that a central representative government may also have been effective. Another implication was that it raised literacy levels in the provinces. In a village, if one person can read then the village can read, so peasants quickly start to formulate new ideas.

LEGAL REFORMS 1864: MOTIVATION: Before 1864, there were numerous different types of court with poorly trained and often illiterate officials. Evidence was presented in written form, with evidence from the nobility given far more credence than that of any other group. It was clear that a fair and just system was necessary, and that this could only be achieved through reform. IMPLICATIONS: Salaries set high to avoid bribery and corruption. Public trials by jury, appeal courts, oral evidence, JPs for 3 years, judges nominated by Tsar, independent bar, lots of lawyers trained. Still some imprisonment without trial, initial shortage of well trained lawyers. Backfired as it was fair to political prisoners and gave them a forum to get publicity (eg Vera Zasulish trial in 1878 after which regular courts were not relied on to deal with terrorist cases). The training of lawyers and judges led to the creation of a new very liberal and well educated class, many of whom would go on to demand political reform. They were a dangerous by-product of the reforms.

MILITARY REFORM 1862: MOTIVATION: Consumed 1/3rd of national income yet still got wasted in Crimean, shortcomings were exposed. Admin and command structure inflexible and punishments in the army were severe and barbaric. Conscription lasted 25 years, so it was basically a life sentence. IMPLICATIONS: Miliutin became Minster for war in 1861 and sought to humanise the military and improve its efficiency.. 1862 –regional commands set up. 1863, capital punishment ended, army schools set up in 1864. 1859 conscription period lessened to just 16 years. The Prussian success helped him to convince the sceptical nobles and conservative military leaders that a well-led modern army was necessary. Russia needed to protect itself and play a role in diplomatic affairs- not really a success as they got trashed in the Russo-Japanese war and in WW1, however some improvements had been made, as was demonstrated by the performance of the army in the Russo-Turkish war of 1878.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM: MOTIVATION: Difficult balance had to be struck, since AII aimed to educate the people without causing them to think and question his regime. Up until 1861, strict and repressive control had been maintained over education. Peasants would be more effective with education, and industrial and economic reform could be effected more quickly with a well trained workforce. IMPLICATIONS: Golvonin in 1861, primary education set up in villages, X4 primary schools 1961-1881. In 1862, schools were placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education rather than the chuch. Lead to more literacy, secondary education was open to all classes but most people could not afford to go, not controlled by church. 1863 University Regulations allowed freedom of expression and given autonomy in administrative matters. Outsiders were permitted to attend lectures, foreigners were allowed to obtain degrees, scholarly texts from abroad were brought in, and political literature was not subject to censorship. 1866 assassination attempt by university student at Kazan university, liberal education fosters radical ideas, Tolstoy comes in and is much more reactionary, introducing crappy subjects like classics. The central government also had more power to dictate the curriculum. Liberals saw this clampdown as unreservedly reactionary. As with the local government reforms, AII was trying to strike a difficult balance. In 1887, the universities statute took it all away.

REDUCTION TO CENSORSHIP: In 1863, responsibility for censorship was passed to Valuev. 1865-press laws, progressive, things freed from censorship such as periodicals, government publications and publications in universities .New books published, more freedom of ideas and expression. In comparison to Britain, censorship was strict, but compared to what had gone before in Russia it was pretty liberal.

ECONOMIC REFORM: Reutern in 1862, unified treasury, centralised administration, exports improved thanks to railway expansion, 1878-278 municipal banks, 727 loan and savings associations, 566 joint stock companies, 33 commercial banks, foreign jews trading and living throughout empire. Least important and actually pretty boring. 1862 budgets were published, 1863 system of excise duties replaced the old system. IN SHORT: These reforms did not go far enough. AII had to reform his own role if he was to successfully reform the country. Ironically, he was assassinated on his way to signing a bill that would begin constitutional reform. Generally speaking, tried to please everyone, and ended up backfiring everywhere and alienating various groups

POLITICAL OPPOSITION TO ALEXANDER II: Often middle-class intelligentsia who had developed radical ideas due to their exposure to Western literature and political writings. POPULISM: Made up of young radicals, negative, focussed on the peasants, believing them to have the most potential, if educated. Go into the country in 1874-1875, 3000 of them dress up as peasants and try to enlighten the masses, 1600 are shot and the rest are arrested. Peasants don’t understand what is being suggested to them. Split into two factions- the milder land and liberty and the mental people’s will. Believe in terror as a means of overthrowing the system. NIHILISM: Accept nothing, question everything, criticise anything, middle class intelligentsia group, highly theoretical, very negative want everything to be changed but are not terrorists.

ALEXANDER II’S FOREIGN POLICY: EUROPE: Governed by the internal state that Russia was in. Wanted to encourage Franco-Austrian rivalry, aimed for closer links with France, against tradition, French then supported the Poles in 1863, ending all co-operation between the two. Only ally was Prussia, Black Sea became neutral in 1871 following the great power conference in London. In 1873, recognising the threat that Germany was likely to pose, he joined the three emperor’s league. Held a conservative attitude which generally didn’t offend anyone too much and worked out alright. Ideological differences with these non-autocratic nations. Several treaties were made later on, 1894 with France, 1904 with Britain and France and 1907 with Britain. ASIA: Policy of sustained expansion. Conflict in Caucasus region, eventual victory in 1864, looked towards Persia and Afghanistan and gradually extended influence eastwards. Gained land in Japan and China, maintained relations with US though sale of Alaska $7 million in 1867. Was a means of getting raw materials, consolidating borders and looking well ‘ard. PAN-SLAVISM: Idealistic, saw Russia as leader and protector of the Slav peoples. Aimed to protect Baltic Christians under Turkish rule. In 1875, Bosnians rebel against Turkish rule, given financial support by Russia. Spread to Bulgaria, Serbia in 1876. Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 but hoped that the Turks would back down. Treaty of San Stephano improved Russia’s position in Europe, Berlin- treaty was revised (took away sea access in Bulgaria). In this region, Austria is the main rival with another mixed nationality empire. Ottoman Empire is collapsing leaving a power vacuum which both nations were trying to fill.

POLISH REVOLT OF 1863: Poland had become part of Russia during 1815, all Tsars are therefore also king of Poland. 1830 revolt, lose constitution and parliament, regime becomes more oppressive, they become much more pissed off, 1863 they revolt again, 1/3 of their land given away to peasants to punish the landlords during the emancipation, doesn’t make them much happier, Russification occurs, people start to seriously dislike AII. Result is that AII becomes more repressive. And then he gets killed, so that is that.

ASSESS ALEXANDER II HIS AIMS: To maintain stability and create a strong Russia. Ultimate aim was to create a military and industrial power through reform but to remain autocratic. Wanted to emancipate the serfs to increase productivity and industrial growth and end serfdom, from above, not below. EXTERNAL CONSTRAINTS: Geographical/physical issues which faced all Russian leaders, the huge population, corrupt and massive bureaucracy, mir, nobles, landowners. All of these are very conservative and present a barrier to reform. Also has some conservative ministers. Has some nasty opposition within the country (see later on) and has to deal with the Poles. HOW EFFECTIVE WERE THE REFORMS? Education- Primary schools much improved, universities lead to free thinking, so are only given limited freedom for a limited time. Local government- Zemstva have power on local scale and are symbolically important. Military reforms- Turkey 1878 lookin’ good, then get wasted against Japan and in WW1. Emancipation- Serfs were emancipated, but alienates the nobles. Redemption payments remain an issue for absolutely ages. He gives people a taste of what they could have and then refused to give any more, thus creating more problems. He refused to reform his own position, and this was the main problem with the whole reform thing.

ALEXANDER III: 1881-1894 Extremely reactionary following father’s assassination and assasination attempts, makes education expensive and elitist, bans foreign literature. Changed judicial system, no open trials, trial by jury, more state police. 1890 Russia was a police state, freedom of speech, freedom of ideas all suppressed. Lots of people got sent to Siberia, good practice for Stalin. Came to power in very bad circumstances. The Okhrana was given more power, and censorship was tightened up, universities were brought under much stricter control in 1887. Was helped by Pobedonovstev, chief minister between 1881 and 1905 who believed that democracy is the great lie of our time. He had a policy of Russification, which aimed to bring national minorities under stricter control, Russian became the only official language, and there was increased racism and victimisation. National identities in Baltic states were attacked. It was also a period of intense anti-Semitism, and the mini purges on the Jews were known as the Pogroms.

WITTE: 1893-1903 Finance minister. Finance minister who brings about the rapid industrialisation of Russia. Equated economic power with military power. Wanted to industrialise along Western lines. Recognised the importance of communications but had a serious railways fetish.

WITTE’S ECONOMIC REFORMS: AIMS AND MOTIVATION: Modernisation of economy, industry and agriculture, leading to military modernisation, end economic slumber. Exploited by Western nations, unbeneficial trading relationship, selling goods and raw materials very cheaply. Needed economic independence. Need to exploit natural resource wealth, primitive methods, boost heavy industries and improve export potential. Needed an economy to compare with other Western European nations, whom they are around 150 years behind. They are being exploited by these Western powers, and Russia needed to become economically independent, not just politically independent. HOW IT WAS ACHIEVED: Infrastructure had to improved first. The process was very uneven and severely limited. Through improvements to infrastructure, particularly transport with projects such as the Trans-Siberian railways. 1890-1900, coal production increased from 5.9 to 16.1 million tonnes per year, pig iron went from 0.89 to 2.66, oil went from 3.9 to 10.2 million. Also increased agricultural production, due to mechanisation, more grain production. 1891-1913 railway length in km grew from 31,219 to 70,156. Foreign experts were also brought in. With huge loans that had to repaid. The emphasis was on heavy industry and exports, leading to huge trade deficit. System of state capitalism with the expansion of basic raw materials. Between 1880 and 1913, grain production increases from 34 million to 90 million tons. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION: Less emphasis on agriculture, peasants left land. Urbanisation occurred at a very rapid rate, facilities in towns and cities not sufficient to deal with this, leading to overcrowding and disease due to poor hygiene, after 1900 as industrialisation slowed down, there was widespread unemployment. High tax and currency value, as well as government emphasis on heavy goods led to a shortage of consumer goods at high prices, workers had no union representation, at the mercy of their employers. Exports increased but there was still a huge debt problem and inflation within the country. Depression began at the beginning of the century. Some people called it a great spurt, but it was more of a dribble. It was mostly due to private enterprises being sustained by government policy, and industrialisation was viewed solely as a means of improving the economy. The huge loans led to very high taxes within Russia, and this was not very popular. There was a huge amount of direct investment into the railways. Also came as part of a World-wide boom in the 1890s which was ending by the 1900s. Normal people and workers did not really benefit from the industrial expansion. Led to depression and unemployment as the population increased at a faster rate than productivity. Industrialisation was far too rapid and brutal and the use of money was extremely uneven with consumer industries being completely neglected. Debt: 116 million in 1897 and 155 million by 1913, the biggest in the world. In 1902, troops were used to put down riots 365 times. A working class is also formed, and they are politicised for the first time. THE DEPRESSION: Started at the turn of the century and was a world-wide thing. Urbanisation had been too rapid, there were no facilities for the new workers leading to overcrowding. With the recession came widespread unemployment, and people no longer accepted the poor conditions. There is social unrest, and the authorities began to find it increasingly difficult to deal with the problems. The workers don’t gain from the slight recovery and still are not represented by trade unions.

MARXISM: First introduced to Russia in 1870. Plakhanov wrote ‘Society and the Political Struggle’ in 1897, first Russian Marxist book. This and ‘Das Kapital’ are not banned because no-one understands them. Utopian. Not like populism because it centres on the workers not the peasants. Class and ruling class are always in conflict. Dialectic- history evolves through conflicts at various stages in development. This idea had in fact first been put forward by the philospher Hegel. He and Marx subscribed to the theory that, in every argument or theory, there is a thesis (argument), antithesis (counter-argument) and a synthesis (brings together the best bits of both), but there is a never ending cycle since this synthesis is itself then subjucted to antithesis, and must also evolve, ending, Marx believed, in Communism. Hegel believed that History had progressed through a series of dialectics. Marx basically took this idea and expanded it slightly, relating it to the class struggle. Marx stated that every society has a ruling class which exploits the ruled class. (The status of any one group in society is determined by its wealth- this is known as economic determinism) Periodically the ruled class with rise up and overcome the ruling class (think dialectic, thesis, synthesis etc). There were several stages which every society must pass through before communism, but when in Capitalism the proletariat overthrows the ruling class, Communism could be achieved. In a Communist community, so the theory went, everything would be distributed evenly among the people ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Eventually the state, and all its institutions would no longer be necessary, and hence would wither away. Ta-daa, perfect communist state. As you can see, very like how Russia turned out… or not.

 By 1890s, Marxists are one of many opposition groups.  Social Democrats, later to split into Menseviks and Bolsheviks.  Economics is the most important thing, economic determinism.  Primitive Communism, Empire, Feudalism, Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, led to Trotskyism –permanent revolution (these are the stages through which a society must pass).

RUSSIA 1881-1890 Alexander III is not a reformer, particularly after seeing the assassination of his father. He is helped during this reactionary period by his chief minister Pobedonestev who describes democracy as ‘the great lie of our time’. 1881 brings the Statute of State security which extends the powers of the secret police. Pipes states that during this period Russia could be categorised as a police state. Russification occurs from 1881 onwards- national identities are attacked in the Baltic states, Russian is the only official language, only Russian religion is permitted. He is also very anti-semitic, carrying out the pogroms and introducing 600 new laws against the Jews.

FAMINE OF 1891: 36 million people affected in 17 provinces (area 2X larger than France) diseases, people are weakened by starvation. Crisis response was very bad, Vishnygradsky’s ‘let us starve but let us export’ policy of absolute denial, needed proof before aid could be sent out, word ‘famine’ is banned. People of all classes are shocked, government passes the buck to Zemstvas which do very well leading for calls for a nation-wide Zemstva. Transportation methods are not sufficient to get food to the needy. Strengthens the potential revolutionary movement, it is this famine that makes Lenin revolutionary. The famine was also caused in part by the completion of the railroad across the US, which meant that cheap American grain from the prairies could be exported. The global wheat price plummets, leaving the Russians with nothing to export.

NICHOLAS II: 1894-1918 (Abdication 1917) Good husband, crap politician. Limited intelligence, couldn’t speak very good Russian, spoke good French, had no military experience, hated the Japanese after his grand tour, didn’t want to be leader of Russia, did his own paperwork and had no sense of the big picture. Taking over the Russian army was a seriously bad move, as it left Russia in the hands of Rasputin and the Tsarina, who were unpopular as you like.

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR Occurred between 1904 and 1905. Japan a rapidly modernising power in the far east with imperial interests in Korea and China. This expansion threatened Russia’s interests in the area. NII underestimated the strength of this nation. Internally, Plehve suggested that a war might take people’s minds off of the crisis (the economic depression following the over-the-top, brutal industrialisation). The Russians were very poorly equipped for this war , had out of date techniques, and were trying to organise it from 6000 miles away. Infantry was soon defeated in Manchuria, whilst the fleet was beaten at Tsushima. The unrest triggered by the conflict meant that there were calls for reform. NII was not willing to meet these, leading to Bloody Sunday.

THE REVOLUTION OF 1905 CAUSES: The war, see above Unrest since 1861 emancipation:This changed the status of the peasants, but did not change the system which they worked in. When you live in an agricultural country with little internal trade this is ok, but when industrialisation begins, industrial production must increase. In addition to this, redemption payments were dispised Population growth: Partially as a result of the zemstvas which had improved the conditions in rural areas. More households reduced the tax burden, so the zemstva encouraged people to marry younger. The population is expanding, but the modernisation isn’t occuring with it. Famine: 36 million people were affected in 17 provinces, and distribution remains a really serious problem. Zemstva: Raised literacy levels and hence allowed the spread of ideas and opposition to occur more rapidly. Industrialisation: Urban conditions were awful, and labour unrest had increased dramatically. Despite the St Petersburg textile workers strike of 1896 the workers still weren’t really politicised. Bloody Sunday massacre (when 150,000 workers go to the winter palace to deliver a petition to the Tsar, and then get shot), the feeling that politics is failing and force is the only solution, cross class outrage. Not aimed at Nicholas, although he is an out of touch loser implementing an anachronistic system-badly. There are many more workers due to the rapid industrialisation, and many of them have a bad standard of living. DEMANDS: Liberals was national parliament with democratic elections, constitution, freedom of speech, political amnesty. Peasants want food and an end to redemption payments. Workers want trade unions, better conditions, shorter hours and better pay, at this stage no-one wants to abolish Tsarism, which was definitely the case in 1917. Obviously these demands are not exactly compatible so there is not a great deal of co-operation. EVENTS: Localised and sporadic countryside violence, peasants get more well organised and form some unions, All Russia Peasant Union (which makes up 65% of the Russian Population). Troops put down these uprisings (2700 of the bloody things). Middle classes and liberals are frightened of peasants and have very different demands to them. Establish a Union of Unions under Milyukov in May 1905. Workers have spontaneous riots but little is planned. General strike by October. Black sea fleet mutinied, and troops were sent in to Odessa to sort it out. NICHOLAS’S RESPONSE: Had done nothing by Sept, August published a vague plan for Duma. October manifesto, satisfied the liberals –legislative powers, freedom of assembly worship and speech. November NII dropped the redemption dues. Put down strikes and urban uprisings with force. Backtracked completely with Fundamental laws of April 1906, which stated that he still had ultimate power. The workers got nothing, although they are too disorganised to really care. The perception of the Tsar had also completely changed, he is no longer seen as the little Tsar. WHY HE SURVIVED: Most importantly had the support of the army thanks to the Treaty of Portsmouth. Troops were able to put down worker unrest which was localised and not organised. All spontaneous and fragmented plus none of it was actually targeted at the Tsar and the autocratic system. Opposition is divided and have different demands which he is basically able to meet. Government was relatively decisive and acted quickly. He was lucky in that at this stage he still had something to offer people. HISTORIOGRAPHY: Did the 1905 revolution and the Tsar’s reaction to it make the events of 1917 somewhat inevitable?

TREATY OF PORTSMOUTH: August 1905, negotiated by Witte and brought about an end to the Russo-Japanese war. Very favourable to Russia, did not have to pay war indemnity, did not surrender all of their territory in Manchuria, army retained faith in Tsar and government. Russia still got absolutely shat on in this war, particularly at the battle of Tsushima.

THE OCTOBER MANIFESTO NII offered state parliament with legislative powers, freedom of assembly worship and speech, legal rights for trade unions, and government positions to moderate liberals. In November he also dropped outstanding redemption dues. These divide and rule/carrot and stick tactics were very effective. The fundamental laws of 1906 backtracked completely from what had been promised. They stated that the Tsar would remain autocrat, with the power to dismiss or appoint any officials, middle classes were to have the most power in the Dumas, he chose most of the people (50%) of the people in the Upper House. He could also veto any legislation, and dismiss the Duma at will. However, 1905 had some important effects: Middle Classes decide that tyranny is better than anarchy, people really begin to sort out their demands, and each of the groups becomes more well organised. Most importantly, the role of the army was absolutely crucial.

DUMA ERA: First Duma-April-June 1906. As with all of the Dumas, it was composed of two chambers, one which was elected and one above it consisting of members selected by the Tsar. Hence the first duma met in a mood of bitterness since its power had been completely cut and it demanded more influence so the Tsar disbanded it. Dominated by liberals and does absolutely bugger all. Second Duma: February-June 1907. Very few Kadets as a result of the Vyborg group, more Socialist Revolutionaries, who would become the most popular party. Considerable disagreement within Duma as the right was better represented. This duma also opposed Stolypin’s reforms. Third Duma: November 1907-June 1912. Lasted longer, made Russia look good for the triple entente of 1907, heavily dominated by right wing parties thanks to Stolypin. ‘Rubber Stamp Democracy’ , got on better with Stolypin as the balance of power was more in his favour. Fourth Duma: November 1912-August 1914. Period of social unrest was beginning once again. Whole period was a lost opportunity, Dumas had some potential, had war not occurred, perhaps Stolypin would have sorted out Russia (he had claimed ‘give me 20 years and you will not know Russia’ or words to that effect, the war meant that he didn’t get these 20 years). Too much repression, people were already beginning to lose faith. The failure of the Dumas disillusions the liberals. The most frustrating thing is that they had real potential, and it should be seen as a period of missed opportunity. If the Tsar had allowed it a few more powers, he may have allowed his own survival, but as he was so unwilling to change his position he ironically brought about his own demise with the loss of the liberal support.

STOLYPIN: 1862-1911 Came from the provinces: Saratov. Famous for his ‘necktie’ and ‘carriages’, Minister of interior for 1906-1907, PM 1907-1911. Believed in economic reform and political repression, in his view peasants are clearly the key to future economic success in Russia. He worked with the last two dumas to get things done as these were more conservative.

STOLYPIN’S REFORMS: Wanted an agricultural revolution, and felt that he needed 20 years (needed way longer and plus there was the small problem of WW1). Had faith in the new generation peasants like those in Lithuania and Poland, who were more enterprising and there was no mir. He wanted peasants to break from the mir and convert their strips to private land, set up bank to help them do this. Plans fail dismally because the peasants are just too conservative. Most of them don’t opt out of the mir. Russia is still in an economic depression at this stage which doesn’t help. Simultaneously, he was implementing a scheme of political repression. Summary courts, prisons 100% over-filled, also ended pogroms, sought to regulate police, supported compulsory primary school education, sought to improve factory conditions. In the short-term, there was chaos in the countryside, in the long term there was discontent as a result of the repression.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR:

17 million roubles spent on it, army reforms had helped but it was still inflexible, artillery renovation, equipment shortages, 10 days worth of shells, 10 shots per day per soldier, 679 cars and 2 ambulances. Supreme commander (Duke Nikolai) had never fought before, on 22nd August 1915, Tsar took personal control of army and this meant that he could be personally blamed when it screwed up. Between 1914-15, the army lost 4 million men (50% conscripts). Officers got shot easily as they went into battle in full uniform. Disease, disillusionment, desertion. Army started to hate Tsar-key factor was lack of army support in 1917. Rail network still couldn’t cope, Rasputin was appointed and was very unpopular, there was a serious lack of continuity in the Duma, leading to a slow decision making process. Inflation quadrupled up to 1917, there were shortages of absolutely anything and everything, no jobs, loads of crime, loads of death, both internal and external problems, everything was crap, it was the man catalyst for the 1917 revolution. Sparked off loads of opposition. Strikes in 1915 over price of bread, by 1917 people began to target the Tsar himself. Revolutionary leaders were not involved at this stage. 63 factories in Oct 1916 went on strike. Petrograd garrison (had been key in 1905), whom NII was relying on were all viciously anti-war.

THE IMPACT OF WW1 ECONOMIC IMPACT: The regime has had to mobilise 12 million men- arm them, feed them and clothe them. The government at one stage attempted to print money to pay for all of this, leading to inflation, although wages do not rise. There is also uneven economic growth, as there is a demand for certain products, although there is a dramatic shift away from consumer industries. Grain cannot get from the countryside to the cities- infrastructure problems and issues with hoarding (as there is no point selling it). The railways are crap, and there are shortages in the cities. SOCIAL IMPACT: The growth of the working class is accelerated. Amenities are never provided and it is a very grim life. The peasantry is also empowered, many soldiers are peasants, and there is a major garrison in Petrograd. Also a refugee problem, as there are many minority groups displaced around Russia. There is a serious polarisation of the classes, as the poor recognise how well off some of the industrialists are. POLITICAL IMPACT: Undermines the legitimacy of the regime-why should people obey the Tsar? The educated people also have more influence, and clash more with the bureaucracy. After the Tsar takes personal control, he can be personally held responsible. Rasputin is also unpopular, and people become more disrespectful of the Tsar through him. The lower classes become politicised and the Tsar’s legitimacy is undermined. The officer core also suffers huge losses which pisses off the nobility immensely.

POLITICAL INEPTITUDE PRIOR TO 1917 Duma reconvened in July 1915, and only the Bolsheviks refused to support the war (everyone else was caught up in this crazy wave of patriotic fervour). NII didn’t like this new duma, and dissolved it by September. With NII off buggering things up on the front line, the Tsarina was left to appoint lots of crap ministers, as well as putting immense faith in Rasputin, who everyone was very suspicious of. By 1916, she was known as the traitor, and in December he was assassinated.

ECONOMIC/SOCIAL INEPTITUDE PRIOR TO 1917 Inflation quadrupled prices between 1914 and 1917. There were food and goods shortages, distribution of food was dodgy, there were labour shortages due to conscription. There was no rationing until 1916, peasants didn’t bother to produce surplus since there were no goods for them to buy. The government tried to requisition grain from the peasants but did not have the manpower to do this. In Jan 1917 food deliveries to Moscow fell 60% short of need, infant mortality doubled and the crime rate tripled.

THE FIRST 1917 REVOLUTION: CAUSES: The war. This meant that Stolypin could not finish off his reforms (and he was dead too). More importantly, it meant that the army no longer supported the Tsar, who was the subject of criticism haven taken personal control of the army. He could no longer rely on force. The scale of the conflict was huge, millions of casualties and Russian soil occupied. It placed economic strains on the country, leading to shortages. He no longer had anything to offer to the people. The dumas had been a failure so the liberals and the middle classes were unimpressed, the workers were also a far larger and more well organised group. Land reform had ended in 1911, so by 1916 tension levels in the countryside were very high once again, particularly with the added problems of shortages due to the war. Left behind the inept politicians, Rasputin and Alexandra who no-one liked and who dismissed every single vaguely good prime minister or foreign minister. The workers were far more organised as were the peasants- ‘this time it’s personal’ and he has nothing to offer them- he is also lacking the support of the nobles and the elites. Lenin et al were not involved- it was a spontaneous revolution. EVENTS: Jan 9th –150,000 workers go on strike in commemoration of Bloody Sunday Jan 14th – Demonstration in support of the Duma as it re-opened. Feb 18th – Putilov workers went on strike Feb 22nd – Nicholas returns to the front Feb 23rd – Demonstration confronting soldiers v. Popular Feb 26th – Last instance of soldiers shooting at demonstrators Feb 27th – Duma blamed by Tsar, Kerensky tries to sort something out. Feb 28th – Red flag raised March 2nd – Tsar abdicates, 1st Provisional Government is set up.

BOLSHEVISM: BP was formally part of the Socialist Democratic party which then split into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks, under Lenin did not believe in revolution as a mass movement, and couldn’t wait for Russia to go through the capitalist phase. In contrast, the Mensheviks (Trotsky was a former member) had theories which were closer to Marxist theory, but were not as well supported or represented in the Soviets.

THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT MONTHS: MARCH-OCT PROBLEMS FACED: WAR. Wanted to have some success before quitting, and needed to maintain support from the allies (Br and Fr), this was in conflict with public opinion, people wanted to see an end to all of their families being dead. June offensive means they lose even more support, and army discipline collapses yet further. LAND. Peasants wanted it and began to take it illegally. PG does nothing much, needs peasant support too. There is still chaos in the countryside, and the mir remains the controlling factor. DUAL AUTHORITY. Soviet drains support from PG, have practical control over Petrograd which is the important thing. People in both begin to lose credibility. Bolsheviks gain support as they were never involved in the PG, bided their time. The country was in complete chaos as a result of the war. EVENTS: April – war continues as the provisional government seeks recognition from the West. The Soviets bide their time, believing themselves to be in the bourgeois phase. 3rd April- The April theses, Lenin writes that capitalism must be overthrown and that the time is now. May-July – 1st coalition. And the failed June offensive 3rd June – meeting of all-Russia congress of Soviets, mostly SRs and Mensheviks who are the big two at this stage. Bolsheviks had grass roots support however. 3rd July – Kronstadt naval officers revolt, supported, but not organised by Bolsheviks. July-Sept – 2nd coalition. Kerensky was the leader of it, Bolsheviks were denounced by him. August – Kornilov affair, general tried a military coup to take away the power of the Soviets, Kerensky’s involvement damaged his reputation. Led to further collapses in army discipline. Sept 29th Oct 25th – 3rd coalition.

KERENSKY: Led the Provisional Government, got a bad reputation from his dealings with Kornilov, played everybody off against one another and was a member of all political groups. Failed to see the real threat that the Bolsheviks posed in late 1917.

APRIL THESES: Made by Lenin. Said that – capitalism must be overthrown, no support should be given to the provisional government, power should lie with the Soviets, land and banks should be nationalised. First suggestion of a second revolution, also contradicting Marxist theory.

LENIN: Died in 1924, was not really in control from 1922. April Theses was the first suggestion of revolution, he was important as it was anti-Marxist, he wanted to force a revolution to occur, and doesn’t believe in the need for a mass movement. He was extremely influential. Between 1918 and 1922 he was a dictator, almost personally responsible for the conclusion to WW1, the ban on factions, the end of the assembly, War Communism, the NEP and Red Terror. From 1922 onwards he was still important as he influenced the power struggle, believing that there should not be one single successor. He was an ideological pragmatist that thought that politics just got in the way of spreading the Marxist message, which was his main aim. Russia came before Marxism, hence the NEP. Made sacrifices for the safety of the revolution, and he didn’t care about individuals. At the time of his death, this was the issue that split the party. The revolution achieved an end to the provisional government, but led to a whole lot more shit.

SECOND 1917 REVOLUTION: PG had done no better than the Tsar- just another ‘Rubber Stamp democracy’. They had continued the war, and there was chaos in the countryside. Kerensky is a complete dickhead, had lost credibility due to his role in the Kornilov coup and the failed June offensive. Working and living conditions were still terrible, Soviets had more power than PG and Trotsky had the brilliantly organised Red Army. OCTOBER 1917- Incited by the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks did not believe that the time was right. It was not a revolution involving the masses, but was undertaken by a number of professional revolutionaries under the leadership of Lenin and Trotsky. It was not spontaneous- it is a coup carried out by an elite group. Thought that Europe was on the brink of Revolution, and that Russia could set it off. Kerensky didn’t believe that it was actually going to happen. On the 25th October the Bolsheviks occupied the Winter Palace, and proclaimed that a revolutionary socialist government would be formed. The next day, Lenin issued his peace and land decrees.

THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF LENIN’S ROLE IN THESE EVENTS Traditionally there was unanimity about Lenin’s importance- he was presented as the maker of the revolution. People thought that he’d founded and developed a strictly controlled and disciplined party, made in his own image. This view also states that the Bolsheviks gained support legitimately in the Soviets, and that the lower classes were aware of what Bolshevism stood for.

THE MORE RECENT VIEW Modern opinion is quite different. In fact, the Bolshevik party was not a strict, disciplined party- it was very loosely organised. Regional leaders often disobeyed the central party line, and did not follow the policy dictated by Lenin. It certainly was not a robotic organisation with Lenin in some kind of all powerful role at its head. Lenin himself was not present between April and October, and his suggestion for an earlier revolution was ignored. He was not always the active leader, and there was a lot of talent at the provincial leadership level- not just in the central committee. Many of the members of the party didn’t even know what he looked like, and he also rarely wrote in pravda.

HOW IMPORTANT WAS LENIN? Must not downgrade him too much. He was quite a modern politician in terms of his ability to manipulate people and appease all kinds of audiences. With fellow Marxists, he talked about the need for terror, and a dictatorship over the proletariat, whilst with workers, he toned his ideas down and talked about freedom for the workers. He was also far less arrogant than someone like Trotsky or Zinoviev. He had the common touch. He didn’t really have control over the whole party, but critically was dominant in Petrograd. He knew that the party would not reject a seizure of power if it was already underway, meaning that he did not need widespread support, even among the party. Also set up the first modern dictatorships, which in time would go on to cover almost 1/3rd of the globe.

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE SOVIET STATE: Summer of 1918 a state was set up that remained in power until 1985. 1917-1918 could be called the idealistic period. People still believed in the ideas of world revolution at this stage. There is a period of artistic, cultural and social freedom, and country become RSFSR. The constituent assembly meets for one day in January and is dissolved by Red Guards as the Bolsheviks only gain ¼ of the seats.

THE END TO RUSSIAN INVOLVEMENT IN THE WAR: Peace was important as to create economic and political stability. Trotsky meanwhile is trying to get the Germans to follow the Russian example and have a revolution. This gives the Russians more time, but also aggravates the Germans. Lenin is typically pragmatic, believing that sacrifices such as a crap treaty have to be made in order to secure the safety of the revolution. On 16th Feb, Germany is getting so impatient that it re-declares war, so the Russians are forced to accept that a treaty is necessary. Brest-Litovsk March 3rd. Russia loses 32% of its land, 34% of its population, 54% of its industry and 89% of its coal. Poland, Ukraine, Finland and Baltic states all gain independence.

THE CIVIL WAR: Bolsheviks v. Tsarists, SRs, Mensheviks, Liberals, Cossacks, Peasants, National Groups, British, French, Americans, Japanese and the Czech regiment. 3 main white armies: Western: Yudenich-on Petrograd Southern: Kornilov and Deniken (Ex-Tsarists) Eastern: Kolchak. The allies are involved because they are afraid of Communism, in addition to this, the Bolsheviks were refusing to pay back huge debts to the French. However, they never fully commit to the war effort. Those in the South probably had the most success, threatening supply lines and generally being really annoying. Kolchak was shot in Feb 1920, following a steady retreat into the Urals. The Crimea was the last white stronghold in April 1920, and eventually the whites gave it up. REASONS FOR OUTBREAK OF WAR AND WHITE CAUSE By 1918, large portions of the Russian population had been alienated, but they did not have united aims. The Whites were those from other revolutionary groups, former imperial officers angered by the Betrayal of Brest-Litovsk, nationalist groups seeking independence. Most of the generals were Tsarists like Deniken, Kornilov, Krasnov, who wanted to restore the Provisional Government. There were also Kadets such as Miliukov, SRs such as Chernov and Nationalist groups such as the cossacks.

CAMPAIGNS In S- Deniken with British and French support, had cleared the Don and Kuban regions of Bolsheviks. In the E, a coalition eventually formed between those holding the Trans Siberian railway. In the N, Tsarist general EK miller with British support controlled Murmansk. In the W, there were Germans and hostile nationalities. In Russia, individual uprisings led by the SRs occurred. DEFEAT OF KOLCHAK: In E, centred on Omsk. Reds were unified, the whites were not. In November 1918, Kolchak became the ‘Supreme Leader of all Russians’, and by June 1919 he’d been pushed back beyond the Urals. By November 1919 Omsk was taken, and in February 1920 Kolchak was handed over to the Red Army and shot. BOLSHEVIK VICTORY IN S AND W: Deniken and Yudenich initially made rapid progress, got from Odessa to quite near Moscow and St.Petersburg. Retreat was equally rapid, after stubborn defence from Trotsky they were pushed back to Estonia. From April 1920, only the Crimean region, with the whites led by Wrangel, remained untaken. He was quite a good commander, but evacuated in November 1920.

REASONS FOR THE BOLSHEVIK SUCCESS Whites in the SE, had wide fronts with poor communications. The aims of the commanders were not always the same as those of the intevening allies. Other than Wrangel, none made an attempt to deal with the peasants and the people. People did not dislike the Bolsheviks enough. The communists had excellent leadership and propaganda. Trotsky brilliantly directed the war on most fronts. Some of the allies were French and American.

WHITES: Divided and incompatible. Included Tsarists, peasants, allied nations plus Japan, Czech legion, liberals, Mensheviks, SRs and some peasants. They are brutal, often as bad as War Communist requisitioning squads. Make Tsarist cities up with ‘all the family’.

REDS: United under brilliant leadership of Trotsky. Gave them an identity, fully professional and well trained, many members were involved with supply and admin, so it was a ‘well oiled machine’. Full of peasants, many of the officers served under the Tsar and are forced to fight with the reds. Discipline is very tight, and the death penalty is introduced once again. Illness and desertion were both major issues. Also education introduced.

IDEOLOGICAL REASONS FOR FOREIGN INTERVENTION SOVIET HISTORIAN AND LENIN’S VIEW: Allied mission was to suppress global communism. Some Western historians also sympathise with this view EH CARR: Intension to redeclare war against Germany in the East as a pretext, and due to ‘fear and hatred felt by Western governments for the revolutionary campaign’. JOHN BRADLEY: Foch’s anti-Bolshevik plan rejected by allies at Versailles Jan 1919, and in February the US had proposed negotiations. Prior to the treaty of Brest Litovsk, the British and Americans had almost given their support to the reds against the Germans.

OTHER REASONS FOR INTERVENTION Viewed in context of WW1. -PG promised to keep Russia in the war, and as such was given resources and finance. Prior to 1914, little attention had been given to Bolshevism. During the war, Germany gave the Bolsheviks money, in the hope of bringing about a Russian revolution and collapse. During 1917, the fighting ceased, pleasing the Germans. The French and British still held onto the faint hope that the war could continue. Lloyd George was ‘neither for or against Bolshevism, but was anti-German’. So aid for anti-German Russians ended up going to the Bolsheviks, and the British and French were determined that this aid would not fall into German hands. - After Brest-Litovsk, many Germans were left in the West, near to huge resources in Poland, Ukraine and Russia, and threaten allied stores. British armies go into Murmansk, whilst the Japanese go into Vladivostok to ease the reclaiming of these stores. They wanted also to restart the war in the East. Britain then seized Baku, not wanting Germany to get the oil from there.

AFTER 1918 MOTIVATIONS WERE DIFFERENT After Germany had been defeated, continuation of the war effort was no longer a priority. FRENCH: Had invested 16 billioin francs in Tsarist Russia between 1887 and 1918. Enterprises set up with this cash had now been nationalised, but they’d received no compensation BRITAIN AND THE USA: Had slightly smaller investments to defend JAPAN: Wanted to make territorial gains in Asia at Russia’s expense. So US sent troops into Siberia to block Japanese aspirations in the region. In 1918, 70,000 Japanese troops were sent into Vladivostok, Sakhalin and E.Siberia. MID 1919: Comintern was established with the declaration that it would ‘overthrow capitalism and establish dictatorship of the proletariat and USSR’- after this point intervention became more ideological but much less relevant.

WHAT DID THE INTERVENTION ACHIEVE? BR, FR, US into Murmansk CZ, FIN, LIT, POL, ROM all wanted independence FRENCH established a land base around Odessa in April 1918 JAPANESE occupied Vladivostok JAPAN AND US occupied Siberia in 1919 At the end of 1918 there were 150,000 troops in N.Russia who were all extremely war weary. The USA sent 6000 troops to Siberia, with limited objectives. More important than these troops was cash. Br and Fr gave the equivalent of 20 million pounds for this, although little of the aid reached the front. Foreign troops in small numbers based around Murmansk had some effect. Aims and motives were often at odds, limiting success, as with Siberia. The US refused to co-operate with the undemocratic Kolchak, the French did, but with ‘great difficulty’. Bolsheviks could also claim that they were fighting imperialism, which acted as a great distraction from the internal disputes. All in all, it was bollox, and a complete failure (but the french were involved so what did you expect…) By 1919 all the French and US troops had been pulled out. In 1922 Japan pulled out.

CIVIL WAR ECONOMY: In a seriously bad state. Germany had control over many of the industrial areas following Brest-Litovsk treaty. The army took people away from industry and agriculture, leading to inevitable problems. Shops are shut, and the economy switches to barter. Money becomes useless and hyperinflation sets in as the peasants refuse to sell their produce. Bagmen went into countryside to try to buy food, most of them are factory workers (30% of all workers did this) which had serious implications for industrial production. Private ownership of land was banned in November 1917. By 1920, Bolsheviks have nationalised electricity, railways and larger banks. A centralised economic planning agency is set up.

WAR COMMUNISM: Was a pragmatic response to the situation created by the war. Also ideological in some ways as it is more similar to true Marxism. About control as much as about food and supplies. Bolsheviks ran factories and began a program of nationalisation. Rationing was based on class, with soldiers and workers being the most favoured. The Bolsheviks take the peasants grain and apportion it all over the country, no private dealing is allowed and all surplus is taken, so the peasants just stop producing surplus, or at least try and hide any surplus that they have. Only works at gunpoint, led by the CHEKA. There is a famine in 1921 that kills 5 million people, the word famine is also banned, echoes of Tsarist regime. Gorky tries to get international aid. US gives a huge amount of money $61 million, and Russia continues to export grain which is very cheeky. This keeps lots of the population alive. Lenin viewed all of this as a sacrifice to the Soviet state, and therefore justified.

THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY: Introduced on the last day of the tenth party conference in 1921, particularly necessary as a response to the Kronstadt Mutiny. No-one can say anything against it as he reveals it on the last day of the conference. The NEP reverses War Communism, there is to be no more requisitioning, private trade is allowed, peasants are encouraged to produce more and allowed to keep surplus, small scale private industries are allowed, this is capitalist. Not particularly Marxist, was a policy that rose out of the war, but may also hint that Lenin had realised that Russia needed an extension to its capitalist period, public expenditure cut, fees introduced for education and health facilities. Idealist Bolsheviks are shocked, but everyone assumes that it is just a short term policy.

LENIN’S POTENTIAL SUCCESSORS: TROTSKY: Had led the Red Army and was probably the most able but was very arrogant, he was seen as Lenin’s 2IC, particularly during the Civil War era. He had a Ukrainian Jewish background, and was an intellectual who had formally been with the Mensheviks. He never held a party post and was not a team player, he did not have political allies and was vocally anti-NEP as he was such an idealist. He put Marxism before Russia. Most importantly, he believed in world revolution, this was clearly not going to happen by 1924, and believers began to lose credibility. He was accused of Bonapartism, as in someone who would betray the revolution. Was defeated by the Triumvirate. BUKHARIN: Editor of Pravda, Secretary of the Comintern, thought that the economy should be allowed to develop at its own pace and was pro-NEP, thought that they would need the peasants, and heavy central control could lead to another famine, his views on the economy are not popular, and the party comes down more on the side of the left at the critical moments. ‘Marxist with reserve’ i.e. does not have the right belief system. KAMENEV AND ZINOVIEV: Lost credibility as they were opportunistic. First of all in Triumvirate with Stalin as they hated Trotsky and saw him as their main threat. As tide turned, allied themselves with Trotsky in 1925 but lost credibility for doing this. In 1927 they were both evicted from the party and the Politburo. STALIN: Manipulated the economic policy debate and was fortunate in that he managed to judge the party mood relatively well. As gen sec, he had filled the party with his own people and was surrounded by his supporters. Everyone underestimated him. Used Triumvirate to eliminate opposition from the right. All of his previous jobs had him dealing with the admin side of things. He was ordinary and not pretentious like Trotsky, he was also xenophobic, as were many Russian people. Did not believe in world revolution which was becoming increasingly unpopular. He used the image of Lenin, making him seem like a God with the ‘Cult of Lenin’ and then presenting himself as the rightful heir, he gained from the association. Nobody believed that he had the ambition, used the CHEKA to get all of the dirt on his opponents. Lenin didn’t stop him as he was too ill and also wanted to balance out the threat of Trotsky, he also never appointed a successor.

TRIUMVIRATE: Had power from 1922-1924 and split up when Zinoviev and Kamenev jumped ship to go work with Trotsky. Defeated Trotsky and the left by working together, united by hate of Trotsky, also thought that Stalin was the weaker candidate. Right was defeated because no-one liked their economic beliefs as it was a deviation from Marxism.

POLITICS 1917-1924 Had to deal with internal and external opposition. Party was becoming a mass movement, how would they turn the party into a government. Tsarist elements still remained, most obviously the bureaucracy, if the Bolsheviks sack all of them, who will they replace them with. Council of People’s Commissars, 10 members, the most powerful body, power was concentrated on just a few people. Bolsheviks begin to bring their own people into the bureaucracy, this leads to Stalin’s appointment as Gen Sec in 1922 which would prove to be a very important position, in 1918 it was a shit job. By 1921 the bureaucracy is 10X larger than the Tsarist one, consuming 90% of all the paper in Russia… As the size of the party grew, it became more corrupt. In the 1921 conference, Lenin introduced a ban on factions i.e. no internal opposition, for some reason, this was actually very effective. To deal with external opposition they won the civil war. Also arrested a vast number of SRs and Mensheviks. Cheka played a very important role in the Red Terror which ran from 1921 to 1923. Terror was used as part of an official government policy, it was a tool of control. Innocent people got caught up in what was a bit like a dry run for the purges. Feelix Dhzerzhinsky led it, bit of a sadist. Tsar and his family are killed in Ekaterinburg in 1918. The terror was responsible for around 2 million deaths. 30,000 members in the Cheka. Trotsky ‘we shall not enter into the Kingdom of socialism with white gloves on a polished floor’ –it’s going to get messy.

NATIONALITIES ISSUE 1917-1924: Russia is an empire so there are lots of different nationalities within it. Lenin initially believed in self-determination, but by 1920 is beginning to change his mind after the failed invasion of Poland. Stalin is Commissar for nationalities, but Marx doesn’t really say how you should deal with this type of problem. Jan 1918-declaration of the rights of the toiling and exploited people. Federal system with a degree of independence, B’shiks continue to unofficially support communist uprisings such as in Poland. Baltic states supposedly get independence following Brest-Litovsk. Ukraine is retaken in 1921 and made part of the old empire. Asian states are brought into the empire, despite the race issue. By 1922 USSR had emerged, remained up until 1991.

CULTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE 1917-1924: 1918-Proletkult is set up, and there is lots of talent about. By 1922, there are lots of very confused and worried peasants, this is all far too abstract for them. Proletkult is disbanded, bringing and end to the cultural flowering, instead you get lots of Socialist Realism art. Religion was also eventually banned, 8000 clergy are killed in the terror, and the wealth of the church is taken over by the state. There is also more personal freedom, i.e. it is much easier to get a divorce, women get equal property rights, it is a forward looking period. Lots of the ‘fun stuff’ is censored because Lenin is boring. In 1924 it all began to change and all of the writers and poets got exiled, people couldn’t write what they wanted to anymore, very depressing.

THE COMMUNIST PARTY UNDER LENIN: PARTY MEMBERSHIP: 1917-24000, 1921-733000, 1924- 1700000. Members were given elite jobs in the armies and factories. By 1921, most of the members had little understanding of the concepts of Marxism or Leninism but knew that being in the party would be good for them. It became a mass movement.

STALIN’S PLANS FOR RUSSIA His economic plans involved reform of agriculture and industry. Famous ‘50-100 years’ speech, had to ‘make good the difference in 10 years’ or be crushed by the Western powers. Unlike Lenin and Trotsky, he believed in ‘Socialism in one country’ and was inward looking and xenophobic. He wanted to make Russia strong and socialists. His economic reforms would also be slightly ideological, more anti-NEP. By 1926, Trotsky is out of the power struggle, so Stalin is able to take the leftist line on the economy and hence shaft Bukharin (good bloke) and Rykov. He wanted to take the country back to true communism, things had to be changing, with none of this capitalist economy bollocks. NEP is also not a very effective policy, by 1926 only 17% of what is grown is marketed. Peasants hoard grain, afraid of famine, also no point having money because there are no goods in Russia. The government grain prices were also very low. Crisis developing- now is the time to implement Stalin’s plans for Russia. As with Lenin, he is an ideological pragmatist, if you know what I mean.

COLLECTIVISATION Collectivisation was Stalin’s plan for agricultural reform and aimed in part to increase Stalin’s control over the peasantry, though its primary purpose was to increase efficiency and productivity through modernisation and improvement of methods. Was piloted at first in Siberia in early 1927 and made official policy by the party by the end of the year. Involved large farms, owned by the state with a work force of 1000s. Resources and labour were shared on the land, the government took a set percentage of what was produced and set quotas centrally. By 1929 it was being introduced across Russia, initially as a voluntary program, which no-one wanted to join- until the government began to use coercion. Between Dec 1929 and March 1930, 60% of the peasants are collectivised, brings chaos to countryside, crops burnt, livestock killed. The process is stopped in March, Stalin ‘dizzy with success’ recognises that the process needs to be slowed down. By June, 25% of the peasants are collectivised (so 35% have chosen to leave collective farms). The process began again after the Sept 1930 harvest, with the goal of collectivisation for every peasant by 1932. This time, much more organised, exciting ‘incentives’ like tractors, but the peasants still mess around (mostly because they don’t trust the communists who have this knack of taking all of their food). In 1936 it is finally complete. Kulak class (around 10 million people) disappear, either sent to Gulags like Kolyma or collectivised.

FAMINE 1931-1934 Inevitably this chaos in the countryside led to a famine. 10-15 million people die, but the whole thing is kept secret. Mostly as a result of the peasants burning their crops, and the fact that collectivised farms take a while to ‘get going’. In typical Russian style, grain continued to be exported, no access to worst affected regions, peasants so hungry they eat next year’s seeds. Stalin’s fault for pushing collectivisation, but he wanted to get rid of the mir and the kulaks. He had the right idea, just went about it in the crap way, not recognising that it would take time and require a situation where there would be little opposition. It consolidates his power but definitely alienates the peasants.

THE FIVE YEAR PLANS The five year plans were implemented to help Russia to rapidly industrialise, hopefully with more success than they had last time that was tried. AIMS: An abandonment of the NEP, not like Bukharin’s ideas of unforced economy, was a break from the right. Had to be rapid and forced industrialisation controlled centrally. Wanted an economy that could compare to that of Western nations in 10 years. Tool for it was Gosplan, central planning agency set up in 1921- national quotas which filter down to the local level. THE FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN: Ran from 1928 to December 1932. Main emphasis was on infrastructure and the production of energy and construction materials, at an envisaged rate of increase of 20%. Not all quotas were reached, but there were significant increases in production in all areas. Machinery output increased X4, oil production X2, electrical output by 250%, 17 new blast furnaces. Some showpieces, Dnieprostoi Dam, and iron and steel production centres at Magniotogorsk and Kuznetsk. Laid foundations for second five year plan. Some quota shortfalls, (Steel, iron, heavy metallurgy and consumer goods suffering the worst setbacks). Also kinda like a ‘peasant buying a gramophone not a cow’- although the showpieces were very nice, they weren’t exactly all that practical. Possibly a little too hard and fast. THE SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN: Ran from 1933 to 1937. Had a lower annual target of 14% and was designed to build on the successes of the first five year plan with a more skilled workforce. Focussed again on heavy industry, metallurgical resources (Pb, Zn, Ni, Sn) and communications. Much better quality and less waste than first five year plan, more showpieces, Moscow-Volga canal and Moscow metro. Some quota shortfalls again, some administrative inefficiency and deterioration of diplomatic situation leading to spiralling military expenditure all slowed the developments. Military expenditure was 3.4% of gov’s total expenditure in 33, 16.1% by 1936 and 32.6% by 1940.

LIVING STANDARDS UNDER STALIN Few individual freedoms for the worker. Working conditions were dangerous, particularly on the major projects away from the traditional industrial centres. If targets were not met, even a lowly worker could face charges of sabotage. However, they did get subsidised food and free medical care. But there were still problems of overcrowding and poor sanitation since the size of the industrial work force doubled between 1927 and 1933. Food prices were high during the early years of collectivisation. In 1933, there was an 80% increase in the price of food and bread and a 55% increase in the price of butter. The industrial drive also brought rewards for some people, and there were privileges for the most skilled and productive workers. In 1935, a Donbas miner Alexei Stakhanov cut fourteen times his quota of coal. Workers such as this got better houses, higher wages and access to scarce consumer goods. But for everyone else, the Stakhanovite movement created problems, as shift production quotas increased by up to 50% between 1936 and 1939.

THE PURGES Resulted in around 20 million deaths (estimates range from 8m to 25m)- it is impossible to get clear figures. More stats: Central committee of communist party lost 110/139 members between 1934 and 1939. In army, 3/5 marshals are killed, all admirals killed, 60/67 political commanders, 70% divisional commanders, 60% political commanders. 1934 party congress 1108/1996 delegates were shot. In Georgia, between ‘37 and ’39, 4/5 party secretaries were shot, around 80,000 people. By 41 Trotsky, Bukharin (‘38), Kamenev (‘36), Zinoviev (‘36), Rykov (‘36), Yezhov (‘38) and Tomsky (suicide ‘38) were all dead, accused of being enemies of the people. Precedent had been set by the Red Terror. Everyone knew somebody that had been purged. Between ’33 and ’34, 1 million people were expelled from the party for being rightist, big changeover in party, people always wanted to join. In December of 1934, The Leningrad party boss Kirov was assassinated, probably on Stalin’s orders as he was getting very popular. Stalin is the chief mourner and being a crafty bastard uses the assassination as a pretext for the purges. NKVD are even more powerful than before, under Beria (a complete sadist, makes Stalin look quiet alright). From 1934, the purges ‘program’ was headed up by Yagoda, head of the NKVD, which becomes a law unto itself. The army was also extensively purged, beginning in 1937. In June, Tukhachevsky and some fellow generals were shot. The purge of the army was completed by 1939, but it was not in a great state at the time of the outbreak of WW2.

SHOW TRIALS In the show trials of 1936, 37 and 38, all of the previous leading Bolsheviks confess to their guilt. Everybody tried confessed to the crime, be it fascism, spying, Trotskyism etc. People genuinely thought that there was a big conspiracy. People who were accused almost began to believe it for themselves. There was never any hard evidence for the convictions, and lots of people implicated other people (Kamenev and Zinoviev implicated Bukharin, bastards. They were on trial charged with involvment with Kirov’s murder and plotting to overthrow the Soviet State. They accepted these charges and read out confessions in court.) Coercion and torture were used if people did not confess, the prosecutor always made a good show speech and the accused was never even given the chance to defend themselves. The party was people’s belief system- some of them genuinely thought that they had betrayed the party (screwed up or what…). In the coming years there would be a strange indifference in Russia, many people still think that it may have been for the greater good.

STALIN’S FOREIGN POLICY In the early years of the USSR, Russian foreign policy had been dictated by the needs of world revolution. However, operating this kind of policy was not easy, since Lenin’s position was not strong enough, the Bolsheviks were weak, there were internal problems and Europe/the USA were both strongly anti-Communist. 1921 the Spartakist uprising in Germany was violently supressed, a sign that world revolution just ain’t gonna happen. This fact means that the USSR is forced to co-operate with non-Communist governments in order to ensure its survival on the diplomatic scene. In 1922, the USSR signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany. These two nations were the ‘black sheep’ of Europe (and remained thus until the Nazi/Soviet pact of 1939), and the treaty was a trading agreement- it also allowed German troops to train in the USSR, breaking the Treaty of Versailles. In 1924, the conservative British government withdraws its recognition of the USSR (choosing just not to look at that part of the map...?) and in 1926 accused the USSR of causing the General Strike- this leads to a breakdown in diplomatic relations. By 1928 Russian foreign policy is most definitely Socialism in one Country. The USSR even chooses to help the nationalist party in China, and was very reserved with its aid to the Spanish Republic. FOREIGN POLICY BEFORE WW2: In 1934 Stalin realises that Hitler is a threat and joins the League of Nations as well as signing a Treaty with France. In 1935 Russia signs a mutual assistance pact with Czechoslovakia, but GB and Fr never agree to a full alliance (see Germany notes to recognise the crapness of this decision). 1935 also brought with it the beginning of the Popular Front policy, this is the idea of an alliance between all left-wing parties, Spain and France both had one for a while. In 1936 Italy and Germany sign the anti-Comintern pact, with Japan signing in 1937. (See Germany notes for details of run-up to war.) In 1939, the USSR signs the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact. This is a non-aggression pact, with Germany and USSR publicly agreeing to enjoy peaceful relations but privately agreeing to split Poland, giving Stalin territory and Hitler a one-front war. The USSR regains some territory that it lost at the end of WW1.

THE STALINIST GOVERNMENT USSR claimed to be a democracy because of 1936 constitution which provided all citizens over the age of 18 the right to elect the Supreme Soviet. But there was only one party to vote for... and any real power lay within the party itself. There was very strict censorship of the press, and little freedom of speech or freedom of movement. Jews were persecuted, and the Orthodox church was also attacked, with many churches closed and priests purged. In 1941 he set up the State Defence Committee to co-ordinate the war effort, the army was reorganised, with able officers being promoted.

CULT OF STALIN Lenin never had his own cult, it was made for him by Stalin who then manipulated it to put forward his own image. ‘Stalin is the new Lenin’ idea, the cult was legitimised by the Cult of Lenin. Socialism is ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Stalinism changes the ‘need’ to ‘work’. Technical jobs are the most profitable, intellectual jobs are downgraded. Emphasis more on hands-on style education, but by 1940 94% of all Russians are literate (probably better than in most of the world today). The Russian character is conservative, and Stalin brought these values back (conservative socialism?!?)- in 1936 abortion was made illegal, and it was far harder to get a divorce- society became much more permissive. Religion was attacked on all fronts, ‘League of Militant Godless Volunteers’ was set up, and they went around pulling down churches. By 1940, only 1 in 40 churches function. 60,000 priests in 1920 down to 5665 by 1940. Also some growth in popular culture, by 1940 Russia had 28,000 cinemas, and stadiums were built in all the bigger towns as were parks such as Gorky park. Books became very popular, but all the art was ‘Social Realism’ whilst all architecture was ‘Stalinist Gothic’. In order to further elevate his status he used art, posters and media. Artists were forced to create works which glorified Russian achievement- 'Social Realism’ art, lots of reds and tractors and Stalin in the sky (yes… realism…). Anything else was branded as Bourgeois. Posters with slogans such as ‘For the Greater Cause’ encouraged people to join the army or work harder in their factory or on their collective farm. The media was totally state controlled, and also glorified the state and Stalin, not that anyone cared, since only about 1% of the population owned radios. All of this propaganda was highly successful, despite its brutality. People did genuinely believe much of what they were told, and arguably Stalin’s ‘popularity’ increased as a result of its use. It was also quite effective for recruiting people for the army.

STALIN AND MARXISM Stalin modified Marxist theories and operated a state under ‘Stalinist’ principles. Stalinism could be seen as the rightful next step from ‘Leninism’. It is important to remember that even before Stalin came along, the USSR was not a true Marxist state by any means. The USSR had only come into being following a violent coup carried out by an armed minority, and not as a result of a mass movement, as Marx had written in the Communist manifesto ‘the proletarian movement is the… movement of the immense majority, in the interests of the immense majority’. The state had also clearly not ‘withered away’, as institutions such as the armed forces, the courts and the police were still very much in existance. The NEP was very far removed from marxist principles, and Leninism had become a political system in its own right, Stalin continued existing trends, elevating the state of the leader and further increasing state control. The political system under these two could probably be best described as state socialism. ECONOMICS: Used the economic debate to rise to power, branding the rightists as ‘anti-Marxist’. Set up a ‘Totalitarian State Economy’- pragmatic, wanted a strong economy rather than one based on Marxist ideologies. Marx had been an economic determinist-believing that the socio-political situation of a country was a direct result of its economic structure- but Stalin and Lenin both inverted this, since the nature of the Russian economy under them was determined by the political system. He also manipulated the ideological debate in order to speed up industrialisation and economic reform. By 1928, it was clear that the NEP was no longer working. In order to ensure the survival of the revolution and of Soviet Russia, it was necessary to transform the nation into a strong, modern, industrialised power in the shortest possible time. But Stalin could justify ending the NEP and forcing rapid industrialisation by referring back to Marxist ideology. The NEP was far more anti-marxist than any of the economic policies under Stalin, and the lessening emphasis on consumer industries as well as a reduction to private enterprise during the first five year plan was far closer to true Marxism. The destruction of the Kuluk class was also facilitated through the implementation of the ideological argument. The Kulaks were identified as the class who were holding back the worker’s revolution. Stalinist propaganda labelled them as betrayers of the revolution, who monopolised the best land and had grown wealthy under the NEP. In fact, they were simply slightly more industrious peasants who had employed more efficient methods, but the scapegoating of the kulak class provided a pretext for a reform of the peasantry as a whole. FOREIGN/DOMESTIC POLICIES: Stalin believed in Socialism in one country, not in world revolution. This is a major contradiction of Marxism, and demonstrates his insular, xenophobic and paranoid character. The Russian character, on the other hand, is inherently conservative. Stalin brought many conservative values back, making divorce far more difficult, outlawing abortion and in general making society much less permissive. This too did not exactly correspond with Marxist theories of constant social upheaval and political change. One of the crucial components of Marxist, and early Bolshevik ideology was the abolition of all forms of social distinction. Marx famously wrote ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Stalin changed this ‘need’ to ‘work’, reviving distinctions, and the influence of the Stakhanovite movement greatly lessened the degree of wage equality. Stalin’s foreign policy was dictated by the diplomatic needs of the USSR, and Stalin did not always offer whole-hearted support to other Communist nations in order to improve the status of global communism. During the Spanish Civil War in the late 1930s, his tentative support of the Republican side only came once he could be sure that he had the backing of Britain and France. One of the primary purposes of the intervention was to limit the activities of the Spanish communist party, whereas in China, the USSR lent its support to the Nationalists. The Popular Front policy of 1934 was also a contradiction of Marxist ideologies, since it encouraged co-operation between all left-wing parties. POLITICS: It has been argued that with the establishment of the USSR, Marxism ceased to be a science of society and instead became the ideology of a political party. Bruno Rizzi, an Italin ex-Trotskist argued that the Soviet Bureaucracy had turned into a new kind of ruling class and that their exploitation of the proletariat was ‘akin to that found in slave societies’. The party had also become extremely detached from the workers who they were supposed to be representing- it was not a communal style society.

THE LAST YEARS OF STALIN The war had destroyed the centralised planning structure of the five year plans, Russian infrastructure also very screwed. Between 1941 and 1943, 50% of the Russian population is under German occupation and 60% of the iron production is lost. After 1943 the war turns around, and there is something of a military and economic recovery. By 1945, 20 million Russians have died as result of the war, 5 million from starvation. Stalin and the Russian people are all pretty paranoid, have been invaded before, begin to retreat into ‘fortress’ mentality. Stalin is seen as the man who won the war, and his popularity increases immensely as the ‘saviour of Russia’. Between 1946 and 1950, another 5 year plan is undertaken to catch up with the West, with the emphasis once again on heavy industry and not on the production of consumer goods. Within Russia there were poor living conditions, poor housing and harsh labour laws. Returning POWs were not treated as returning heros but were purged as they had been in contact with Nazis, placing doubts over their loyalty. Russians who fought with the Germans were also purged, as were ethnic groups like Chechens and Cossacks. 400,000 people from the Baltic states were also purged. He is also ‘jealous’ of Leningrad which survived the 1000 day siege during the war and was known as the hero city. In 1949 the Leningrad party leadership was purged, with Marshall Zkukov sent to Siberia (he had defended Leningrad and Moscow during the war). In 1953 Stalin discovered a ‘Doctor’s plot’ and believed that Jewish Kremlin doctors were trying to kill him. He died in March of 1953- lots of official mourning, he is embalmed and then stuck next to Lenin, there is also some genuine grief as people remembered what he did for Russia.

OVERVIEW OF STALIN THE STATE OF RUSSIA AT THE TIME OF HIS DEATH: Russia is a fully industrialised modern power, it has nuclear capabilities, by 1953 it has more territory than in 1914 having gained the Baltics, and has control over most of Eastern Europe. She is a world superpower and without doubt the strongest power in Europe, it is also the leading light of World Communism, something that becomes more relevant as China turns Communist. It is a totalitarian dictatorship. Within the country the USSR ain’t so tough- many people live in fear and the economy is totally inbalanced due to the lack of focus on consumer industries. Politically it is a strong nation, the state is extremely powerful and the secret police are very effective. People need a strong Russia- they still have the inherent fear of the USA. The culture has been totally politicised, including art, plays the music and the literature. The standard of living of the people is very basic, they have basic educatio. There is no organised crime. In short, Communism has provided a safety net, but everyone is on it. WAS THIS ALL DOWN TO STALIN? The industrialisation was due to his five year plans which began in 1928. Russia is more uniform, but this uniformity has been imposed by the state. Stalin has tightened up what Lenin started in terms of censorship. The state organisations are more efficient and more intrusive in people’s lives. Their relationship with the world sucks, partly down to Stalin although it had to be a least slightly inevitable due to the inherent suspicion of Communism around the world. In terms of foreign policy he was in a tight spot though, since no-one wanted to ally with them. He also set up the cult of Stalin, and Communism had changed to become Stalinism. He had been accused of (or thought of) as being the Red Tsar. Also killed almost 20 million people, genuinely pretty much all down to him. He kills people bigger and better- his is a legacy of terror and fear. Collectivisation was also important, reformed the entire agricultural system, in the end for the better, though the peasant stoopidity almost messed it up.

�GERMAN HISTORY 1815-HITLER

DATES

1815: No of German states cut from 300-39 1815-48: Confederation under Metternich 1848-49: Europe-wide revolutions, German one fails 1848 March: Vienna riots, Metternich flees 1850 March: Erfurt, unification proposals 1850 Oct: Capitulation of Olmutz 1854-56: Crimean War 1857: Von Moltke appointed chief of staff 1862: Bismarck comes to power 1863: Polish revolt 1864: War v. Denmark 1865: Convention of Gastein 1865 Autumn : Bismarck ensures French neutrality 1866: War v. Austria 1867: Bismarck refuses to give Luxembourg to the French 1870: Franco-Prussian War 1875-78: 1st Balkan Crisis 1878: Treaty of San Stefano 1879: Dual Alliance 1881: Triple Alliance (with Italy) 1885-86: Bulgarian Crisis, G no support for A 1887: Reinsurance Treaty 1890: Bismarck sacked 1897: A-H and Russia freeze on Balkans 1898: Naval laws 1898: Fashoda crisis 1902: British treaty with Japan 1904: Entente Cordiale 1905: End of Russo-Japanese War 1906: Algeciras crisis 1906: Dreadnought launched 1906: Beginning of military conversations 1907: Anglo-Russian entente 1908: Buchlau 1909: A-H annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, G support for A 1909: British naval expansion, 5:3 ratio 1911: Agadir crisis 1912: Announcement of 3rd battle squadron 1912: Haldain Mission 1912: Reichstag Elections, SPD becomes the biggest single party 1912: Potsdam conference 1914 28th June: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated 1914 5th July: Hoyos Mission 1914 23rd July: Ultimatum handed over 1914 25th July: Serbians accept most of ultimatum 1914 31st July: Russians mobilise 1918 Nov: Kaiser’s abdication 1919 Jan: Spartakist uprising 1919 Spring: Weimar constitution drawn up 1919 June: Treaty of Versailles signed 1923 Nov: Munich Putsch 1923: Ruhr occupation 1924: Dawes Plan 1925: Ebert Dies, Hindenburg new president 1924-29: Stresseman era 1928 May: Elections (nazi gain 12 seats) 1929 Oct: Wall Street Crash 1929: World depression 1930 March: Muller’s coalition breaks up 1930 Sept: Bruning calls Election (nazis gain 107 seats) 1932 Jan: Dusseldorf industrialists meeting 1932 March: Presidential elections 1932 May: Bruning sacked after two years 1932 July: Nazis gain 230 seats 1932 May-Nov: Von Papen Era 1932 Nov: Nazis get 196 votes 1932-33: Shliecher in power 1932 July: Nazi biggest partyin elections 1933 Jan: Hitler becomes Chancellor 1933 March: Hitler gains a majority

1848-1933

1848 1815- Number of Russian states cut from 300-39, beginning of Austrian leadership of German confederation, under leadership of Metternich. Biggest and most powerful individual state is Prussia. He was a very autocratic leader. March 1948-Series of Revolutions right across Europe, partly due to bad harvest. The government collapses, Vienna is in conflict, poorer working classes are the source of the conflict. Spreads to Germany, but revolutions fail. This is because the army remains loyal, harvests improved. The revolutions have a greater impact in Austria, weakening its power. Metternich is forced to flee to Britain. In contrast, the Prussian king completely caves into the demands made by the people. In the short term, Prussia becomes more powerful than Austria. The following year, the majority of the leaders across Europe had regained control.

FRANKFURT PARLIAMENT Meeting of liberals in May of 1948. They hoped to set up a unified Germany, but there were obviously many problems with this. They didn’t succeed, as the Habsburgian authority recovered in October of 1848. However, they had tried, and to Bismarck, 12 years later, this was a sign that if the Kaiser and the Chancellor wanted to maintain power, they were going to have to ensure that the middle classes and the liberals didn’t get round to taking it first.

ERFURT UNION Following the events of 1848, the prestige of the Prussian state was temporarily higher than that of the Austrian state, with a more important role in German affairs. Von Radowitz put forward a proposal for a united Germany, to include the North German states under a Prussian king in march 1850. This proposal leaves out Austria, taking advantage of their present weaknesses. 11 out of 30 states refused to send a representative. It was bound to fail for this reason, as it was based on only a temporary Austrian weakness.

CAPITULATION OF OLMUTZ The proposals of Erfurt were weak, based on only a temporarily weaker Austria. In Nov 1850, the Prussian leaders were forced to concede and give up the leadership of Germany. The Russians also gave the Austrians their support.(Austria did not support Russia in the Crimean War though- cheeky...)

PRUSSIAN ADVANTAGES-1860S Was the leading member of the economic Union-the Zollevrein (est 1834). Austria was in decline and diplomatic isolation, as Russia was unimpressed after the Crimean. Also had conflicting interests in the Balkan states. Prussia on the other hand had Russian support after supporting them in the Polish revolt of 1863. Also had industrial advantages with a good railway system- designed for swift troop transport and booming coal and steel industries. Government legislation had also been passed to enable maximum industrial output. More money from good economic situation meant that they had a really good army, 63000 troop intake annually (a figure which had risen from 40,000). Prussia could mobilise 370,000 men by 1866, had good officers and good admin. Von Moltke appointed in ’57, very ‘humane’ supposedly, which is why he became a soldier, very successful commander. Von Roon reformed the army-59-61.

THE DIPLOMATIC SITUATION Britain supported a strong Germany that could balance out the French, the traditional enemies. Russia and Prussia common interest in controlling Poles and Lithuanians, Austria and Russia had different ones, particularly after Crimean. Russia was too weak to stop Prussia after the Crimean, and was screwed re. AII’s reforms. French unwittingly helped Prussia also. Meanwhile Austria was always bound to come into conflict with Russia over issues relating to the Balkans

WHY UNIFY GERMANY Inevitable, take opportunity of diplomatic situation above, it could be on the middle classes terms, but they wanted a constitution also, which didn’t suit the Kaiser or Bismarck, who knew that the liberals would settle for unification. He felt that by unifying Germany he could get rid of the liberal threat to the system. ‘I prefer to make revolutions rather than be destroyed by them’.

1864 WAR V DENMARK King Christian 9th annexes Schleswig-Hostein in 1864. This took Bismarck by surprise. Germany, including Austria, calls for war and the Prussians have a swift victory. S-H remains German, Bismarck shows off his new army and he becomes more popular after defending the honour of the German people. Public opinion was firmly with him. At the convention of Gastein in 1865, it was agreed that S-H was to be jointly governed by Austria and Prussia.

1866 WAR V AUSTRIA Much more carefully planned. Bismarck had isolated Austria with a series of secret treaties. After the 1863 Polish revolt, the Russians were not going to come in on Austria’s side, in August 1865, Bismarck visited Biarritz and gets Napolean III’s agreement to stay neutral, in exchange for Luxembourg. He also expected a slow war that would weaken both nations, so didn’t want to intervene. Early 1866 signed treaty with Italy meaning that they would also attack at the start of the war. Hungarians unofficial blocked Austria. Quick victory, won at Battle of Konigsgratz (S. Moravia). Austria are beaten but not destroyed as Bismarck will want their support again soon.

1870 WAR V FRANCE Blatently not planned at all. France and Prussia not getting along as Luxembourg was not handed over. 1870 Spanish approach Prussian prince to become new king, Bismarck says yes, ally against France, French realised what was happening and demanded the candidate be withdrawn. Ems telegram- supposedly an apology was edited by Bismarck, who made it more ‘strongly worded’. War breaks out in August. The three southern German states also fight for German honour- despite the Kulterkampf campaign against the Catholic Church. Made the decision about whether to involve them in Germany for him. Decisive Battle at Sedan. NIII abdicates and flees to Britain, siege of Paris until 1871, hall of mirrors Germany is unified. Also annexes Alsace Lorraine-public opinion and mountain borders. Bad move, as French want to get it back. Unification was achieved, therefore by ‘Blood and iron’.

THE MAINTENANCE OF STABILITY Government dominated by Protestants, Catholics distrusted by Liberals. Minority nations integrated but under very strict controls. May 1973, May laws were passed which tried to weaken the Catholic community. In fact it strengthened their resolve, though relations between the two groups improved in 1878 following the instatement of a new pope. Wanted to keep it quiet in Europe so that the new nation could sort itself out. Needed peace, main problem was France and A-L, had to eliminate the French from the forefront of European politics to maintain the ‘delicate balance’ that was Germany.

DRIEKAISERBUND 1873 Had to diffuse tension between A-H and Russia over the Balkans, and try to isolate the French, and block any link between them and Russia. This treaty seemed to fulfil all of those aims, leaving the French isolated, despite the fact that these complex alliances he formed seemed to not last long or really mean all that much. It also meant that he didn’t have to choose between A-H and Russia.

FRENCH CRISIS 1875 French recovery was very speedy. Bismarck began to hint that a war against the French was planned, and hoped that this might make them retreat into diplomatic obscurity once again. Britain, Italy and Russia all demanded that he back down, and the appeals for support from the other major European nations by the French went some way to bringing them out of isolation.

THE BALKANS 1875-78 Russian interest-Pan Slavism, encouraging Slav nationalism, in conflict with A-H policy, as an empire full of different nationalities where nationalism would cause serious problems. Tension came to a head in July 1875. Bosnia-Herzegovinian and Serbian slavs rebelled against their Turkish rulers, a turkish power collapse would have led to a power vacuum which A-H and Russia would obviously both try to fill. Russians supported the Slavs and defeated Turkey in Jan 1878. Bismarck had offered the Russians some support, but would not commit to either A-H or Russia if a war were to break out.

POST BALKAN WAR TREATIES TREATY OF SAN STEPHANO Imposed by Russia on Turkey following the war. European Turkey reduced through enlargement of Bulgaria, Romania, Montenegro, Serbia. Bulgaria got sea access, this is crucial because at this stage Bulgaria had very close ties with Russia. The Austrians thought that this Treaty was too kind to Russia. CONGRESS OF BERLIN Reversed parts of the treaty. (June-July 1878). Probably a short term success, diffusing some tension. Russia lost a lot of what it had gained, strains were put on the Dreikaiserbund, and it signalled the beginning of the end of the ‘Bismarckian system’.

THE DUAL ALLIANCE 1879 A-H and Germany. Comes only 13 years after Battle of Koningsgratz, showing that Bismarck’s plan of not permanently alienating them had paid off. Led to two nations fighting on same side in WW1. Like all of Bismarck’s Treaties, it was only a short contract, it is defensive and anti-Russian. France made a treaty with Russia, and Europe began to take sides. Britain remained in ‘splendid isolation’. May have tried to scare Russia into isolation or into improving relations with Germany. In 1882 Italy also joined in. Was beginning to draw Germany into the Balkan issues.

SECOND BALKAN CRISIS 1885-1886 Austria almost goes to war against Russia over Bulgaria, but Bismarck says that Germany will not support as it was not part of the Dual Alliance. Austria backs down, humiliation. ‘The Balkans are not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian Grenadier’.

END OF THE BISMARCKIAN SYSTEM REDUCTION OF TENSION IN THE BALKANS In 1887, Russia, A-H and Germany signed the Re-insurance treaty. In 1897, Austria and Russia agreed to not be aggressive in the Balkans, and Russia adopted a steady expansionist policy in Asia whilst Germany tried to take over parts of Africa. Meant that Germany no longer had to decide between the two, and could still arbitrate over European affairs, and that France could be kept out even longer. DETERIORATING RELATIONS WITH RUSSIA In 1890, Bismarck was sacked. When, in 1892, Russia approached Germany about signing the Re-insurance treaty, Germany refused. No-one was capable of operating the Bismarckian system of treaties. In 1894, Russia instead made a treaty with France, who begin to invest large sums of money in Russia. This brings France out of isolation.

THE ROLE OF BRITAIN Had more in common with the Germans during the period 1894-1914 in a way. After the treaties was the only unattached country in Europe. In 1898 come into conflict with the French at Fashoda, then in 1902 form a Treaty with Japan which is an anti-Russian treaty. After the Russo-Japanese War, Britain and Russia can be on better terms. In 1904 signed the 1904 Entente Cordiale, which began to form links between France and Britain. Will come into conflict with Germany who begin their Weltpolitik policy, with efforts to expand their empire in Africa. In 1906 launched the dreadnought which made the rest of the Fleet obsolete and began the Naval race with Germany. In 1909, Britain announced that it wanted to build 5 battle ships for each of Germany’s 3. Put immense strains on resources, particularly in 1912 when Germany launches a 3rd battle squadron. Haldane mission, British minister sent to Germany to try to freeze the arms race. Germany agree on the condition that Britain remain neutral in any future wars. Solved when British Mediterranean fleet moves to the North Sea, and the French channel fleet moved to the Mediterranean. Important in bringing Britain into the war on the French side.

BUCHLAU AND THE BALKANS (AGAIN) After Russian defeat, particularly Battle of Tsushima, Russian eyes turned back to West and the Balkans. At Buchlau in 1908, Austrians say they want to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina which annoys the Serbians, and in return Russia say they want Med access through the Dardanelles. In 1909, A-H go ahead and annex B-H but Dardanelles issue has not been resolved. Russia feels double crossed. This time, against Bismarckian policy, Germany says it will give unequivocal support to Austria against Russia who back down, this time. Will they back down 5 years later?

COLONIAL DISPUTES Britain has Egypt and Sudan. France has Tunisia and wants Morocco, this would give them control over the Med. In the 1904 Entente cordiale agreement, they agree that Britain can have Egypt and France can have Morocco. In 1905, the Kaiser visited Morocco, an indication that he wanted to break up this relationship and block a French takeover. In 1906, the major European powers meet in Algeciras to discuss the future of Morocco. All of them supported the French, including Italy, Spain, Russia, Great Britain, the USA support the French. This whole issue starts the military conversations, which begin to commit Britain to joining the war on the side of France. In May 1911, the French occupied Fez, an indication that they were about to take it over completely, rather than having it as a protectorate. Germany saw another opportunity to have a go at the French. They sent a gunboat to Agadir, claiming that it was in the port to protect German interests. This resurrected the Naval dispute, and Britain issued a statement supporting the French on the 21st of June 1911. A formal protectorate was established in March 1912. There was a serious lack of Russian interest in the whole thing, partly because they had a screwed country and partly because this part of the world wasn’t really important to them. This worsened relations between Britain and Germany though, and perhaps even made war more inevitable. It was also another sign of a formal commitment between the British and the French.

THE BALKANS 1912-1913 (ITS THE LAST TIME, I PROMISE) In 1912 a Balkan league had been formed, including the nations of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro. They all fought a war against Turkey in 1912. By 1913, the Turkish empire was all but defeated, and the Balkan league was also beginning to split up as the nations began to fight amongst themselves over what they had won. Bulgaria lost out the most, with the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913 taking away much of their territory, whilst Serbia was fast affirming itself as the dominant force in the Balkans, after Buchlau, they were now more of a Russian protectorate than an Austrian one. The French were also giving more support to the Russians over these Balkan issues, and Pointcare basically handed the Russians a blank cheque in October 1913. If Britain had made its position clearer would Germany have been less arrogant and aggressive?

GERMAN REICHSTAG ELECTIONS In 1912, reflecting the industrial nature of Germany and the size of its working class, the SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag, and threatened to cut the powers of the conservative parliament. They wanted to reform the government, giving people a real constitution rather than rule by the Kaiser and the Chancellor. The Kaiser and the Chancellor decided that a war was needed to unite the people behind the present government and forget about the socialist demands. Internal conflicts would be suspended, or so went the theory. In 1912, the military top brass met in Potsdam to discuss this proposal. There was a feeling that Russia was catching up, and that by 1916 (as Von Moltke said) they may not be able to defeat them so easily. The Russians were also in the process of refitting their artillery squads. The general feeling is that mid 1914 would be the best time for war. Everyone gets caught up in the patriotism.

THE JULY CRISIS 28th July-assasination of Franz Ferdinand The Austrian cabinet meets and is undecided. Some wanted to punish the Serbs, some thought this would destroy the empire, and that Russia would join in. 5th July-Hoyos mission. Hungarian minister goes to Potsdam and asks whether the Germans will support them. Kaiser says do it. There are three options:

Balkan War- Russia backs down as in 1909
Russia supports Serbia- this is what the army was going for
Britain and France get involved, at this stage the Kaiser wants to take on all of them.

23rd July-ultimatum handed over to the Serbs. The delay was due to the fact that Pointcare was in St Petersburg before, also had to get army ready for mobilisation. It had actually been prepared by July 8th. 25th June-Serbians accepts almost all of the terms. The military leadership was now in charge, and the war was no longer about Serbia 31st July- Russia mobilise, getting onto a war footing. Germany says stop mobilisation or we will declare war- hoping to look good, perhaps to stop Britain from entering the war. They seem to be not making the first move, but records of meetings show that the German command didn’t even want to wait for the Russians. It had to be a war on two fronts following the Franco-Russian entente of 1894. The Schieffen plan kicked on on August 4th, and Britain was fortunate in that it had an excuse to join the war-was committed, but the public didn’t know. After Belgian invasion, they were justified. Each of the nations are drawn in one by one.

SUMMARY OF THE CAUSES OF WW1 Balkans: Tension between A-H and Russia. Buchlau v.important. Colonial Disputes: Britain supports French, both in conflict with Germany over North Africa Naval race: Tension between Germany and Britain Reichstag Elections: Germany needed to inspire nationalism to stop the socialists gaining too much support- they were waiting for the right time for a war. July Crisis: Draw all the countries into the war. German government manipulated the situation, Bismarckian treaties started problems.

WHO DO WE BLAME? GERMANY?- They were most likely to actually WANT war -had the Schlieffen plan, obvious contingency plan, but did they actually want to fight Britain, as the plan did not include this at all. -The timing was perhaps down to them, as in the Potsdam meeting they had determined that 1914 was the best time to fight the Russians, as they predicted a slow Russian mobilisation, and were also aware that by 1916 the Russians would have completed their artillery reforms. -If they didn’t want war, then why did they support Austria? Had they advised Austria to back down (the chance came with the Hoyos mission), then the situation may not have escalated. -Some historians have claimed that they didn’t want war at all, but thought that by supporting Austria, they might have scared the Russians into staying neutral. But this didn’t happen, probably because they didn’t want to be humiliated again after Buchlau. AUSTRIA?- If they hadn’t been so paranoid about Serbia and slav nationalism, they may have been prepared to negotiate after the assassination. RUSSIA?- If they had not backed Serbia with such infinity, then the situation could not have escalated, or if it had, then the Germans would obviously have been to blame. BRITAIN AND FRANCE?- If they had not kept their affair secret, then the Germans may not have wanted to invade France, as they may have feared a world war as opposed to a confined Balkan conflict or a war with just Russia.

TREATY OF VERSAILLES WHAT DID THE VICTORIOUS POWERS WANT? Britain: Defence of democracy, and wanted the injustice that he believed had been done to the French to be righted (as in the loss of Alsace and Lorraine). He also wanted independence for Poland and the restoration of Belgium and Serbia, self government for the countries of the A-H empire and self determination for the former German colonies. US: Wilson put forward his famous 14 points for peace in January 1918. The most important and original was his call for a peace keeping organisation. WHAT DID THE DEMAND WHEN THEY MET? French: Wanted a really harsh peace, and wanted never to fee threatened from that border again. Britain: Did not want a harsh peace as they wanted to continue the trading relationship. But he had won an election in November 1918 with phrases like ‘hang the Kaiser’, and so the public expected a harsh settlement. USA: Had been in favour of a lenient peace, but after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Wilson did not really see why Germany should be treated well. In particular, he was in favour of self-determination for all the former German states. WHAT WAS THE UPSHOT: The treaty was criticised immensly. On the one hand, it was so harsh on the Germans that is made another war almost inevitable, yet on the other hand there was little provision for the terms of the treaty to actually be upheld. Germany not occupied and not completely beaten, but it was a matter of time before they were. Soldiers and public opinion were behind a continuation of the war effort. The provisional government was given the great job of making peace after the Kaiser’s abdication in early Nov 1918. Socialist government lost support because of signing the Treaty, but had no choice about it. Treaty was signed in June 1919. It involved 440 clauses. 231-War guilt, most crushing, justified the rest of them. Those with the worst implications were: THE TERMS OF THE TREATY: i. Germany lost territory in Europe, Alsace-Lorraine to France, Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium, North Schleswig to Denmark, West Prussia to Poland, Memel to Lithuania. France got the use of the saar coal mines. Germany also lost all of its African colonies which became mandates under league supervision, and Anschluss was forbidden. ii. The size of the German army was strictly limited. 100,000 troops were permitted, without conscription, no tanks, military aircraft or submarines were allowed, whilst the navy could only have 6 battleships. The Rhineland also became a demilitarised zone. iii. The war guilt clause left the Germans responsible for the outbreak of the war, and legimised reparations payments. iv. Germany was forced to pay reparations, amounting to £6600 (this figure was finally announced in 1921) v. A league fo Nations was set up, but it was shit. THE GERMAN REACTION: The Germans were angry at being offered a dictated peace, and had no role in the discussions. However unfair this was, it was also the same with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. They also felt a little cheated, as they were not offered a peace based on Wilson’s 14 points. They felt distinctly pissed off at being forced to give up their African territories, as this was done because France and Britain stood to gain by operating the mandates, as it basically gave them an easy way to seize these colonies. On grounds of nationality, they were annoyed at the loss of land in Upper Silesia. In addition, they resented the disarmament clause. They were left with barely enough troops to deal with domestic disturbances. According to point four of Wilson’s 14 points, there should be general disarmament, but only the Germans had it forced upon them. They resented having all of the blame for starting the war placed upon them, as they felt that a combination of factors had led to its outbreak, and didn’t see why they should be blamed entirely for it. We can look back now with the benefit of hindsight and point the finger at Germany, but after 6 months it seems a bit premature to conclude that it was all their fault. The reparations payments were the final insult. The amount seemed far too high, since they couldn’t really afford it, and this would cause problems for the victorious nations also. The Young plan reduced the payments to $2000 million in 1929. If Clemenceau had had his way, it would have been even harsher. The promise to reverse this treaty was central to the Nazi campaign, and the Socialists who signed this Treaty were seen as the November criminals, who had stabbed Germany in the back. It was also nothing to do with Wilson’s 14 points, and had the French had their way it would have been even more harsh.

THE OTHER PEACE TREATIES OF PARIS TREATY OF ST GERMAIN, 1919, WITH AUSTRIA: Austria lost Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia, Dalmatia, B-H and Montenegro to Serbia, which became known as Yugoslavia, Bukovina was given to Romania, whilst Galicia went to Poland. Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and Triest went to Italy. TREATY OF TRIANON WITH HUNGARY 1920: Was signed much later because there was an attempted communist coup going on in Budapest. Slovakia was given to Cz, Croatia and Slovenia were given to Yugoslavia, Transylvania was given to Romania. The treaties both seemed harsh, and were made in the spirit of self-determination. But not everyone was placed under the right government, as 3 million Germans were put into Cz, whilst 1 million were wacked into Poland, under the guise of making these states economically viable. My arse. What it made them was politically unstable, and it also gave Hitler an excuse to take em back and hold the other nations of Europe to ransom prior to world war two. The treaties left these countries in economic difficulty. Austria was a very small state, its population reduced from 22 million to just 6.5 million, with all of its industrial wealth lost. She needed constant loans. The Hungarian population was reduced from 21 to just 7.5 million, and in addition also lost its valuable corn land. There was actually a real economic advantage to anschluss, and it was a bit stupid that it had been banned. THE TREATY OF SEVRES WITH TURKEY 1920: Turkey lost Eastern Thrace, some Aegean islands and Smyrna to Greece, Adalia and Rhodes to Italy, the Straits were made permenantly open, Syria became a French mandate, Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan all became British mandates. The Turks were outraged at losing so much territory to their hated rivals Greece, and under the leadership of (baba.. ) Mustafa Kemal they chased the Greeks out of Smyrna. Under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, the Turks regained bits of Eastern Thrace after the Chanak incident. The arabs, along with Laurence of Arabia btw, got a shit deal, as they did not get independence from Turkey and then a bunch of bloody zionists came in and took over most of Palestine. THE TREATY OF NEULLI WITH BULGARIA 1919: Lost territory to Greece, and lost its Aegean coastline. At least 2 million Bulgars were under foreign government as a result.

THE SPARTAKIST UPRISING Jan 1919. Spartakists (group of German Marxists) under leadership of Karl Liebmecht and Rosa Luxembourg want to seize power, as Lenin had done two years earlier in Russia. Armed uprising in Berlin which is crushed by the army. It was absolutely crucial, as this caused a split in the SPD, which now became two parties, the KPD-communist and the SPD, more moderate, including the president of the soon to be Weimar Republic: Ebert. Had the party not split, it could have formed a stable coalition for longer and kept Hitler out of power.

THE FORMATION OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC Republic and constitution born out of defeat in July 1919. Should have been an opportunity to set up a good, effective system, but they tried too hard to make it fair. Opted for a policy of proportional representation, so even the smallest parties would have a voice, but this meant that it was even more fragmented. The republic was plagued by problems of indecision, as every government was a coalition. The president was given considerable power, as was the Chancellor (particularly during the era of presidential decree). The first five years were plagued by crisis, but to be honest the whole thing really was just bollocks.

RUHR OCCUPATION The stupidly large (particularly seeing as the allies caused much of the damage) reparations payments would have crippled Germany had it not been for the Dawes Plan of 1924. Germany struggled with the reparations payments right from the start, and it was agreed that they could pay in raw materials.(Weisbaden accord of October 1921). In November 1922, Germany claimed it was just too poor to pay. French and Belgian troops then entered the Ruhr and just began taking what they believed to be rightfully theirs. The measure was greeted by nation-wide outrage, and Chancellor Cuno ordered a policy of passive resistance. This led to some unity and nationalism, and made the government more popular. The workers then went on strike, and industrial production fell by 90%, meaning that the Germans had nothing to export, leading to domestic shortages and spiralling prices. The government paid for this by just printing money. The situation led to hyperinflation, destroying the middle classes as the value of the Mark plummeted. Nazi party membership doubled to 55,000, and people began to lose faith in the government.

THE MUNICH PUTCH Hitler decided in November 1923 that the time had