Jake - Assorted revision notes

From KstructIB

History Revision Notes - IB 2001

Peace treaties after the First World War

In 1919, the leaders of the victorious powers met in Paris to decide how to deal with the defeated powers. The leaders of France, Britain and the USA found it very hard to agree on what to do.

The Paris Peace conference Moments of hard negotiation, argument and compromise ended when the two German representatives signed the Treaty on 28 June 1919. The Treaty of Versailles was very harsh on Germany. The Germans compained at the time that the Treaty was totally unfair and many historians have criticised it since. When the leaders of Britain (Lloyd George), France (Clemenceau) and the USA (Wilson) arrived in Paris in January 1919 to draw up a treaty, they were already under pressure to deal severely with Germany. There was a strong feeling among the people of the victorious countries that Germany was responsible for the war and should be punished. Apart from the USA, all countries had an economy in a bad state, having lost millions of talented young men and huge areas of land devastated by the war. They wanted reparations from Germany to help make up for these losses. Politicians knew they could get the support of the people and get elected if they demanded a harsh peace settlement with Germany. The case for treating Germany harshly was strengthened when it was made public how harsh Germany had been on Russia in the treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918. That treaty had stripped Russia of huge amounts of land and 25% of its population. From the Allied point of view, this was further proof of the evil intentions of the Germans.

Aims of the Paris Peace Conference Georges Clemenceau was under intense pressure from his people to make Germany pay for the suffering they had endured both in 1870 and in the Great War. France had always felt threatened by Germany, ever since the 1870 war, and the French leaders felt that this was an opportunity to cripple Germany so it could not attack France again. Woodrow Wilson was an idealist whose aim was to build a better and more peaceful world from the ruins of the Great War. He believed Germany should be punished, but saw the danger in punishing it too harshly. His most important idea was the setting up of the League of Nations as a peace organisation. He believed in self-determination and put forward 14 points in January 1918 as his aims for the Peace Treaty. Some historians have pointed out that while Wilson talked a great deal about eastern and central Europe, he did not know very much about the area. David Lloyd George was often in the middle ground between Clemenceau and Wilson. He was a realist, and although he wanted Germany to pay, he saw the danger in this. He was also keen for Britain and Germany to start trading with each other again. However, like Clemenceau, he had real problems with public pressures at home for a harsh treaty, and had just won an election where he had promised to make Germany pay.

The Treaty of Versailles

War guilt - article 231 This clause was seen by the Germans as extremely harsh: Germany had to accept full blame for starting the war.

Germany's armed forces Army limited to 100'000 men Conscription banned Germany was not allowed armoured vehicles, submarines or aircraft Navy could only build 6 battleships Rhineland became demilitarised zone

Reparations The exact figure of the reparations was not agreed upon until 1921, where it was set to £6.6 billion - an enormous figure. Had the terms of the treaty not been changed by the Young plan in 1929, Germany would not have finished paying this bill until 1984.

Germany territories and colonies Germany's overseas empire was removed (cause of problems between Germany and Britain). Former Germany colonies became mandates, controlled by the League of Nations (effectively controlled by France and Britain). In addition, Germany was forbidden to ever ally with Austria again.

League of Nations League of Nations set up as international police force. Germany was not invited to join the League until it had shown that it was a peace-loving country.

German reactions to the Treaty of Versailles

The terms of the treaty were announced on 7 May, to the horror of the German nation: Germany effectively lost:

• 10% of its land
• All its overseas colonies
• 12.5% of its population
• 16% of its coalfields, and half its iron and steel industry

The overall reaction of the Germans was horror and outrage. They certainly did not feel that had started the war, and they did not even feel they had lost the war. In 1919, most Germans did not really understand how bad the German military situation was by the end of the war. They believed that the German government had simply agreed to a ceasefire, and that therefore Germany should have been at the Paris Peace Conference to negotiate peace. At first, the new government refused to sign the treaty, and the German navy sank its own ships in protest. The German leader, Ebert, was in a no-win situation, however, as he could not keep fighting, and he could not inflict war and certain defeat on his own people. He therefore accepted the terms of the treaty and it was signed on 28 June 1919.

The impact of the Treaty on Germany

In 1919, Ebert's government was very fragile. Right-wing opponents could not bear the Treaty and they attempted a revolution against him. Worse was yet to come. In 1922 and 23, Germany fell behind its reparations payments, so French and Belgian soldiers invaded the Ruhr region and simply took what was owed them in the form of raw materials and goods. This was allowed under the Treaty of Versailles. The German government ordered the workers to go on strike so that they did not produce anything for the French to take. The French reacted harshly, killing over 100 workers and expelling over 100'000 protestants from the region. The strike caused huge inflation, as the government tried to print extra money, but the people soon found that the money was worthless, and the value of the Mark crashed.

Verdicts on the Treaty of Versailles

Not only was Germany outraged at the treaty, but none of the three powers were even satisfied by it. Clemenceau's problem was that the treaty was not harsh enough, and in 1920, he was voted out on a French general election. Lloyd George received a hero's welcome when he returned to Britain, however, at a later date, he descrived the treaty as a great pity, and indicated that he believed another war would happen because of it. Wilson was very disappointed with the Treaty. He said that if he were German, he would not have signed it. The American Congress refused to approve the Treaty.

Fascism - What did it mean in Italy 1922-43?

Economic self-sufficiency: The country must produce everything (especially food and raw materials) they need without relying on foreign goods. This was also to emphasize the 'greatness of the state'. To do this, the government controlled the economy, and ran it to some extent (but not as much as in communist states where they own the businesses).

A totalitarian state: A state that aims to control all aspects of people's lives, from schooling to art, from religion to holiday-making.

A one-party state: There was no room for democracy or sharing power. Fascism was against communism, which accounted for much of its popularity. Support was also won using huge propaganda schemes like mass rallies and speeches.

Military strength: Violence was also a way of life in Fascist Italy. A myth was created that said Mussolini had seized power by revolution. Opponents were badly treated and Italy had an aggressive foreign policy.

Extreme nationalism: The greatness and superiority of the state was greatly emphasized.

World War I - 1914-18

Triple entente: France, Britain, Russia Triple alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

Alliance - military agreement to protect one another in case of war Entente - NOT a military agreement, only a close 'friendship'

Although Italy was in the Triple Alliance, it does not fight as soon as war is declared in summer 1914. Italy joins the war on the other side nine months later. The 'Triple Entente' won Italy over by offering it lots of land in the Treaty of London. Japan joined the war on the Triple Entente's side. In the beginning, most people were enthusiastic about the war. There had not been a 'good' European war for a long time, and war was believed to be good for the economy, as well as for the army.

Italy at war

When WWI started, (July 1914), Italy did not join in despite her alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Futurists and Nationalists wanted to join and they put pressure on the government to do so. Socialists were opposed to the war, and campaigned actively against it. Mussolini, a leader of the Socialist party, and editor of the Socialist paper the 'Avanti', quickly abandoned his anti-war propaganda, and started to call for intervention in the war. He was quickly expelled from the Socialist party because of this. He then founded his own paper, 'Il Popolo D'Italia'. In April 1915, Italy joined the war on the Entente's side, after signing the secret Treaty of London. This promised Italy land: Istria, Dalmatia, and South Tyrol. Italy fought a difficult war in the Alps, against the Austrian army. In 1917, Italy was forced to retreat at the battle of Caporetto, which was very humiliating for the Italians.

Cost of the War: Italy lost 600'000 soldier, and 1.2 million were wounded and crippled. Financially, it cost Italy 150 b Lira. This was more money than the Italian government had spent since the unification of Italy in 1870. The economy was disrupted because of all this. There was huge inflation (cost of living increased 5X), the exports stopped, and unemployment figures rose.

Government's promises: During the war, the Italian government had encouraged the soldiers by making promises, like land for the peasants, jobs for the people, pensions for families, benefits for soldiers and families of dead soldiers, free medical aid for the wounded, etc. However, when the war was over and the soldiers came back from the war, they found that most of these promises were broken by the government. 160'000 soldiers were bitterly disappointed, as there were no jobs available for young, non-qualified soldiers, there was no land to distribute, and there were long delays to obtain any money in compensation from the government. National pride was hurt by these broken promises. Italy received only South Tyrol and Istria, but not Dalmatia, which it had been promised, but which was given to Yugoslavia. Angry Nationalists talked of a 'Mutilated Victory'. Members of the special fighting units, the Arditi, formed themselves into groups. Mussolini, although not a member of the Arditi, decided to join them, and in March 1919, he formed the 'Fascio di Combattimento', which developed into the Italian Fascist Party.

Why was Mussolini able to come to power?

1. There was a general atmosphere of frustration and discontent amongst the Italian people due to the broken promises (land, money, inflation, unemployment). The government was also weak and kept falling: in 1919, universal suffrage was introduced. The Italian proportional system meant that political parties had to form coalitions to achieve anything in parliament, which meant that it was hard to carry out a party's plan completely, as compromises had to be made so often. (The Italian government fell five times in a year after the 1919 elections.)

2. A wave of strikes shook Italian cities throughout 1919-22. Rising prices and unemployment together with the growing membership of the Italian socialist and communist parties explain the very high amount of strikes. There were 361 in the month of May in 1919! This created a revolutionary atmosphere where the risk of a Socialist revolution seemed to be very real. The revolution of 1917 stood as a menacing example to everyone.

3. Mussolini was able to attract the support and sympathy of different sections of Italian society. He posed as the defender of private property and of social order. He organized his Fascio di Combattimento into anti-socialist 'police' that attacked socialists and burnt down socialist headquarters.

4. Divisions among fascists' opponents: the socialist party and the communist party would not cooperate to bring down the Fascists. The liberal Prime Minister, G. Giolitti (1920-21) could not govern the country due to systematic opposition in parliament due to the socialists. Giolitti organized an election in 1921 to get the fascists voted into government. He hoped that they would back the liberals. The Fascists got 35 of the seats (7%), and the Socialists 122. The result was that the socialists kept blocking the government's policy in parliament.

5. The general strikes of summer 1922: Mussolini organized his fighting units and he started to terrorize his opponents by beating them up. The Socialist party called for a general strike in July 1922, but this played right into the hands of Mussolini, as he was able to give the government an ultimatum: either the government stop the Socialists, or he would. The strike was a failure in any case, but it enabled Mussolini to pose as the enemy of Communism, and the savior of the country.

6. The March on Rome: by autumn 1922, the fascists felt strong and confident enough to bid for power. Mussolini called for a March on Rome of all fascists. 50'000 fascists took to the countryside around Rome. These fascists were poorly equipped and were told to march into Rome. When Luigi Facts (the PM), was told about this, he asked the King for special powers to resist the invasion, such as control of the army. The King refused to do this, and instead, he telegrammed Mussolini in Milan, asking him to come to Rome to become the new Italian Prime Minister. There are many possible reasons why Victor Emmanuel III decided to do this:

• He didn't trust Facta?
• He didn't trust the army?
• He feared a civil war?
• He feared the fascists would take power anyway, and it was useless resisting?
• He didn't want to abdicate in favour of his cousin, who was sympathetic to fascists?
• He felt he would be better able to control Mussolini inside the government than outside?

How and when was Mussolini able to convert the government into a dictatorship?

Mussolini's weaknesses after he was appointed Prime Minister (1922):

• He did not have a fascist majority in parliament
• The King could always dismiss him and use the army against him
• He had to cooperate with the Liberals, and the Popolari (Catholic party) both in government and parliament.

However, Mussolini strengthened his position by:

• Obtaining posts of Minister of the Interior (control of police), and Foreign affairs.
• Using the squadristi to intimidate his political opponents (including the liberals).
• Playing on the middle classes' fear of the Left (socialists and communists).

Mussolini got open support from the church by banning contraceptives and promising to introduce compulsory religious education in schools.

In July 1923, Mussolini introduced the Acerbo Law. This put an end to the proportional system of the government. It said that the party with 25% of the cotes and had the highest number of seats in parliament would automatically get two-thirds of the seats in parliament. This was a way out of coalition governments.

In April 1924, there were general (legislative) elections in Italy. The fascists got 66% of the votes, and therefore also got 66% of the seats in parliament. Mussolini was being over-cautious with the Acerbo Law. Widespread use of violence by the squadristi helps to explain this result.

The death of Matteotti: Socialist MP, G. Matteotti, gave speeches in parliament denouncing the Fascists' use of violence in the electoral campaign. In June 1924, Matteotti was kidnapped and stabbed to death by Fascist thugs. This quickly became a crisis for Mussolini. Anti-fascist feelings began to spread. The socialists and communists boycotted parliament, hoping the King would decide to dismiss Mussolini. The King did no such thing, while Mussolini initially denied the accusation that it was him that had ordered the assassination. Later, Mussolini was pressured by the Squadristi to set up a dictatorship. Mussolini was in a difficult position.

In December 1924, extreme fascists presented Mussolini with an ultimatum. Mussolini decided to take action:

• Press censorship established
• Political meetings banned
• Political parties banned
• Secret police set up

In January 1925, Mussolini gives a speech to parliament in which he accepts responsibility for the murder of Matteotti, and claims he is proud of it.

The setting up of a personal dictatorship:

Mussolini wanted all the power concentrated into his hands. He created the post of Head of the Government, which was not accountable to parliament, but only to the King. He decided to rule by decrees, thus ending all democratic processes. Mussolini set up the Fascist General Council (composed of all party members) to approve anything he did. He started a personality cult (called himself 'Il Duce'), and had newspapers praise him, as well as started to hail himself as the new Caesar, saving Italy from Socialism and Communism. He used slogans such as "Mussolini is always right" to brainwash people.

Threat from Squadristi: Radical members of the PNF (Fascist party), led by secretary Farinacci, put pressure of Mussolini to carry out a 'Fascist revolution'. Widespread violence between April and October 1925 was used despite the government's orders to calm down. Mussolini intended to use the party as a servant to his needs, not to have his authority challenged. He therefore took certain measures to crush the opponents:

• Replaced Farinacci with a more moderate leader
• He blamed squads and gangs for the violence
• He purged 60'000 PNF members by 1928
• He reorganized local branches of the PNF - local leaders were appointed directly by Rome

Why could Mussolini defeat the radical wing of the PNF?

• The PNF lacked clear ideology
• The PNF was divided into conflicting groups
• Mussolini played one group against another
• The PNF expanded greatly in the 1920's (1.4m members by 1928): new recruits were white collar careerists and opportunists without strong political opinions who joined the party for the advantage that membership helped to obtain jobs.
• The squadristi were therefore an isolated minority

How did Mussolini set up a Fascist State?

• All political opposition banned (using OVRA, secret police)
• Press censorship introduced
• Local power brought under control
• Education controlled by the government, gave good views of Mussolini, and encouraged the denunciation of opponents to the regime

Mussolini's consolidation of power

Relations with the Church: Mussolini signed an agreement with Pius XI, called the Lateran Pact in 1929. The Italian Government:

• Recognized the Vatican State as an independent state
• Made Christian Catholicism the official state religion in Italy
• Promised to introduce compulsory religious education for all students
• Paid a large sum of money to the Pope in compensation for the land he lost in 1870

The Vatican, in return for this, recognized the existence of the Italian State, and therefore bridged the gap between the Church and the Italian government. This is considered as one of Mussolini's most lasting achievements.

The Corporate State: Mussolini made trade unions illegal and introduced Fascist-controlled unions. Mussolini's ambition was to put an end to class struggles and internal division by setting up a 'Corporate State'. By 1936, there were 22 corporations, each composed of both workers and factory owners. Eventual problems were solved peacefully between these two groups. Strikes were made illegal. In compensation for this loss of freedom, workers got free Sundays, paid holidays, free football and concert tickets.

Mussolini's Social Policy

Women: in Mussolini's own words: "Women do not count in our State". However, women were targeted as child-bearers, were encouraged strongly to marry and have children (future soldiers). Mussolini launched the battle for births in 1927, aiming to increase Italy's population from 40 million to 60 million by 1950. He did this in a number of ways:

• Loans given to married couples, partially cancelled after each child born
• Women discouraged from working outside the home
• Promotion in civil services only open to married men
• Medals awarded to women with many children

This was, of course, a failure.

Mussolini's Foreign Policy

1922-34 "The quiet years" (Quiet pressure of Yugoslavia for Fiume, and quiet pressure on Albania to control the country indirectly.) 1935 Abyssinia 1936 Friendship with Nazi Germany

It is difficult to be precise about Mussolini's plans and methods in foreign policy. Despite Mussolini's constant reference to his foreign dreams, he gave no details in his speeches. He insisted his policy was a clean break with the past and very different from the liberal governments before him. This, however, was untrue. Mussolini was interested in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and Africa, which had been Italian dreams since the late 19th Century. It is clear that Mussolini wanted areas that had 'escaped' Italy after WWI, and that he dreamt of a new 'Roman Empire'.

Italy remained in the League of Nations, and signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928, agreeing to refrain from using war to solve disputes. Mussolini also joined the Stresa Front with Britain and France (1935) to resist any further breach in international agreements with Germany. In exchange for signing the Stresa Front, France and Britain were more lenient on Mussolini's thirst for an African empire.

Abyssinia Crisis 1935-36 Mussolini's aim in getting Abyssinia:

• Personal prestige increased in Italy
• Increase of Italy's prestige abroad
• Economic gains for Italy
• African soldiers join Italian army

Abyssinia was one of the two remaining non-colonized countries in Africa, and bordered two other Italian colonies (Eritrea and Somalia). From October 1935 to April 1936, Italy brutally attacked Abyssinia using poison gas against civilians. This was very successful, although it was against the laws of the League of Nations. Consequences:

• Immense popularity for Mussolini at home
• Crisis in relation with Britain and France
• Mussolini driven to closer relations with Germany

The League of Nations condemned Mussolini's actions with weak sanctions. Mussolini seemed shocked and disappointed - clearly he did not expect Britain and France to turn their backs on him.

Friendship with the Germany 1936-WW2 Despite Mussolini's dislike of Hitler, Italy needed a powerful ally to have more weight. The Rome-Berlin Axis was wigned in 1936 (?). Germany supported Italy's expansion in the Mediterranean and the Balkans. Italy supported Germany's expansion in Eastern Europe. In March 1939, the Pact of Steel with Germany: Italy promised to support Germany in any war at any time. However, Italy was not fully prepared for war. When war broke out in September 1939, Mussolini broke his promise and remained neutral until June 1940 when he joined Hitler, who seemed to be winning. This was Mussolini's downfall...

Historical interpretations of Mussolini's foreign policy

I) Mussolini had no basic principle of foreign policy He was out to gain prestige for himself and Italy, and expand (Balkans and Africa). He had an opportunistic attitude towards other countries in Europe. Basically, he seized opportunities as they came.

II) Mussolini was Britain's "Lost Ally" Mussolini tried to be Britain and France's ally, but after the conquest of Abyssinia (1935-6), relations became difficult and cold. As Italy was economically and militarily weak, it needed a powerful ally abroad in order to have weight and achieve gains. Therefore Mussolini turned to Hitler.

III) Mussolini: the traditional Italian There is no Fascist foreign policy as such. Mussolini simply carried on with his predecessors' priorities of expanding in the Balkans (Mediterranean) and Africa.

IV) Mussolini had domestic problems Mussolini was a prisoner of Italy's internal problems. Public opinion expected foreign expansion from Mussolini. This was also seen as a way out of economic problems (new market for Italian goods).

Racial Policy - Racial Charter 1938 It excluded Italian Jews from the party and the army. It prohibited mixed marriages between pure Italians and Jews. It banned Jewish people (children) from Italian schools.

Hitler and the NSDAP's electoral breakthrough

NSDAP membership:

• 1925: 25'000
• 1926: 49'000
• 1927: 72'000

1928: Elections:

• 2.6% (12 seats)

1929:

• Young Plan
• Alfred Hugenburg (media tycoon)
• Law against enslavement of German people

1930: Elections:

• 6.4million votes
• Largest part in Reichstag
• Still not majority
• Deception for Hitler

1932: Elections:

• 13.7million votes
• Largest party in Reichstag
• Still not majority
• Hitler frustrated

46% of Nazi voters were aged between 10 and 29yrs.

Nazi voters:

• Northerners
• Protestants
• Farmers
• Extreme nationalists
• Youth
• Ex-supporters of Centre-Democrats.

Non-Nazis:

• Southerners
• Catholics (because these people are a minority)
• Urban people
• Educated people
• Communists & Socialists (because these people are a minority, and strongly bound together. Strong ideological allegiance.)

Propaganda

In "Mein Kampf", Hitler wrote "The receptive powers of the masses are very restricted: they forget easily". Goebbels, Hitler's future minster of propaganda, believed that the key to success and effective propaganda was simplification and repetition. No one before had made such an extensive use of propaganda before. Hitler is known to have 'invented' modern propaganda.

Posters: Not new, but Hitler used them extensively. Every German town was full of Nazi posters. They were cleverly designed. Modern technology: Hitler made use of loudspeakers, films, music, radio, cinemas, etc. to reach each person in an audience/crowd. He used cars and planes to move quickly between campaigns and give the image that he was a modern statesman. Rallies: These were very cleverly organized. Thousands gathered to listen to Hitler's powerful speeches. Flags, torches, uniforms, songs and anthems, the salute, the swastika. Everything was done to create a frenzy of excitement and make the audience feel and behave like a group. Specific messages: Hitler adapted his speeches to his audience and told people what they wanted to hear. (Farmers had different speeches than businessmen.) Violence: SA and SS carried out violent attacks on political enemies during electoral campaigns. In July 1932, there were 461 political riots in Prussia alone. Social events: Local party branches were told to organize events (football matches, concerts, etc.) in towns and villages where participants would be exposed to Nazi propaganda.

Why did Weimar fail?

• A 'compromise' constitution (article 48).
• Born out of the Treaty of Versailles.
• Economic problems.
• Unstable conditions: proportional type of government.
• There was an appealing alternative by 1932 (Hitler).

Why did Hitler succeed?

• Hitler's ideas appealed to the public.
• Hitler identified popular fears/desires and responded to them.
• Aggressive use of scapegoats (Jews and Communists).
• Skillful propaganda uses.
• Charismatic leader.
• Divisions & weaknesses amongst his political rivals. Communists & Socialists were divided. Right-wing thought they could control him.

The "Legal revolution"

Hitler is appointed Chancellor on 30th January 1933.

Weaknesses: 1. Only two Nazi members in parliament: W. Frick (Minister of interior) & Göring. 2. No majority of seats in the Reichstag without support of the Nationalists. 3. Hitler's position was dependant on president Hindenburg's support.

Strengths: 1. The Nazi party is the largest party in the Reichstag. It is almost impossible to govern without Nazi support. 2. No acceptable alternative: only communists & SPD (Social Democrats) have a large following apart from the Nazis. 3. Now Hitler controls Germany's media & police, he can use both to further his cause. 4. Financial backing by businesses: 20th February 1933, industrialists invited to Nazi 'meeting' where they are persuaded to give money for the party.

Violence: Electoral campaign for March 1933 elections marked by extensive use of violence by SA & SS, as well as Göring (Minister of interior of Prussia) using police vs. Communists and all political opponents.

The Reichstag fire: 27th February 1933. A young Dutch Communist called Van der Lubbe was found with incriminating evidence and was arrested. He confessed, but insisted that he had acted alone. Intensive historical research was carried out in 1962 to test historians' hypothesis that Nazi responsibility was involved in the fire was inconclusive. The Nazis seem innocent. Hitler took advantage of the fire to pass a decree on 28th February 1933: the "Decree for the protection of the German people and State":

• Suspended civic and political liberties.
• Arrested communist and Social Democrat leaders, and hundreds of political activists.
• Powers of federal government in Berlin strengthened at expense of state governments.

5th March elections: Nazi results disappointed Hitler:

• November 1932: 33.1%
• March 1933: 43.9%

The Enabling Act: Hitler wanted to rule without a parliament (dictatorship), so he drew up the 'Enabling Act': the Reichstag should vote to suspend all parliamentary activities for 4 years and hand over power & legitimacy to Hitler's government. (This meant changing the constitution, which required a 2/3 vote in favour.) Problems:

• Hitler's image of respectability was threatened by on-going violence of SA in the streets.
• Hitler needed to reassure the German public that he was a moderate leader.

Day of Potsdam: 21st March 1933: Ceremony to open the Kroll Opera house as the new house of parliament. Hitler makes a big propaganda effort to present himself as the natural leader and to stress continuity between the German past and the new Nazi government.

23rd March 1933: Reichstag votes on Enabling Act. Crucial day for Hitler, as it was a gamble. The entire building was surrounded by the SA for intimidation.

• The Communists and Social Democrat MP's were refused admittance to the Reichstag.
• Hitler declares he will respect Catholic Church & uphold Catholic values. (So that the centre parties & Catholics back him.)

Result: 444 votes in favour vs. 94 against. The 'Legal revolution' turned Germany into a dictatorship.

The Legal Revolution: 1. The Enabling Act = foundation stone of the Third Reich 2. Gleischaltung 1933-34: Bringing into line, 'Nazifying' German society by eliminating the most obvious poles of opposition:

• The federal states
• Trade-unions
• Political parties

He did this by:

• April 1933: more power given to nazi-controlled state governments over state parliaments.
• January 1934: state parliaments abolished.
• 1st May 1933: Hitler makes the first of May a bank holiday. This fools the unions into thinking cooperation with the Nazis is possible.
• 2nd May 1933: All trade unions occupied and closed down. Leaders arrested. DAF (German workers' front) is set up as a 'replacement'. Will control workers instead of helping them.
• KPD (Communist party) outlawed since February 1933. SPD (Social Democrats) outlawed in June 1933. All other parties (including Nationalists) vote themselves out of existence.
• 14th July 1933: Hitler declares Nazi party the only legal party in Germany.

However, the Gleischaltung is not complete!

• Army still capable of stopping Hitler
• Hitler still does not control the Church
• Hitler depends on big businesses, and they are not under his control

The "Night of the Long Knives": 30th June 1934.

6th July 1933: Hitler is worried about permanent state of revolution, and declares an end to it. (This is because the behaviour of part activists was running out of control). Hitler asked the party to accept "Change from above and not from below". Consequences of Hitler's speech: Made Nazi activists (SA) even more determined to have a second, more radical, revolution. Feared leadership ready to compromise Nazi radical ideology for political expediency. SA:

• Represented the anti-capitalist left wing of Nazi Party
• Working class membership. Placed more emphasis on socialist elements of Nazi programme.
• They had played an important role in winning the political battle in the streets. They wanted no compromises.
• Leader (Ernst Röhm), calling for a genuine Nationalist-Socialist revolution. Disappointed by Hitler.
• Central issue: future role of SA in the Nazi state. Röhm wanted to integrate the SA & Army into a people's militia under his command.

Army:

• Totally opposed to Röhm's idea. Threat to their traditional role & status.

Hitler:

• Caught between two powerful and rival forces.
• SA are 2.5 million men committed to Hitler, led by his oldest political friend.
• Army is the only organization that could threaten Hitler's power.
• Attempts to compromise: Röhm made a member of his government & meeting in February 1934 between Army leaders & SA.

Hindenburg:

• The crisis became very hot because of President Hindenburg's imminent death. Hitler wanted to assume presidency without opposition. He needed the army's backing.
• There is no written evidence of agreement between Hitler & Army leaders, but clear understanding.

Result: 30th June 1934: Night of the Long Knives. Hitler eliminated SA as a political & military force once and for all. Röhm and other leaders shot by SS members. Old scores settled: Schleicher & Strasser both killed. 200 people total (approximately) murdered.

Consequences: (very important)

• The army gave Hitler full backing
• Hindenburg died 1st August 1934, Hitler became president and Fuhrer
• SA was finished, SS emerged as party's elite terror squad

The Third Reich: A political revolution?

For:

• Violence adapted as a political tool
• Time-factor: happened quickly
• End of parliamentary activities
• Abolition of political parties (totalitarian state succeeds a very democratic one)
• Abolition of trade unions
• Abolition of federal governments and parliament.

Against:

• Church still in place & is still independent
• Big businesses still in power
• Army still not under Hitler's control
• Before January 1933, parliament had already lost a lot of power, as the chancellor was ruling by decree (semi-dictatorship in place).
• Anti-democratic forces in Weimar Germany had always been in place.

What happened between January 1933 and June 1934:

Monday 30th January 1933: Hitler appointed Prime Minister. Immediately members of the NSDAP stage huge torchlit rallies to celebrate and frighten enemies. 22nd February 1933: Goring makes SA and SS members auxiliary policemen in Prussia. (Legalised violence against Nazi enemies.) This inspired SA leaders all over Germany who, under their own authority, carried out terrorizing raids on their enemies. 27th Feb 33: Reichstag fire. Communist Van der Lubbe blamed for fire. Emergency decree passed suspending civil freedoms. 5th March 33: Reichstag elections. Nazi votes went from 33.1% to 43.9%. Still not enough for majority. 288/647 seats in parliament. Hitler needed 2/3 of the seats. 21st March 33: New Reichstag opened up at Potsdam. (Kroll opera house). 23rd March 33: Enabling law voted. SA and SS used to intimidate and arrest enemies. Law passed (441 vs 94 votes). 7th April 33: Law passed to remove Jews and political opponents from civil service and legal profession. 1st & 2nd May 33: 1st May made a public holiday to catch trade unions off guard on next day, when SA and SS close down all trade union offices. Trade unions now made into the DAF (German labour front) under leadership of Robert Ley. 22nd June 33: The SPD outlawed. End of June: Middle-class parties (DDP and DVP) vote themselves out of existence. 26th - 27th June 33: The DNVP's paramilitary organisation (Stahlhelm) leader, Alfred Hugenburg, resigned from cabinet on 26th June. The next day, the remainder of the party joined the Nazis. 5th July 33: Catholic party formally dissolves itself. 6th July 33: Hitler announces revolution over. SA unhappy and lose auxiliary policemen status in August. Rohm and SA are threatening to Hitler. 7th July 33: The Bavarian party (BVP) dissolves itself. 14th July: Law passed NSDAP only legal party. 1st February 34: Rohm presents plan to merge SA and SS with army. 28th February 34: Hitler tells SA and SS that they will never have a military role. Rohm is displeased. Army generals fear he will try a putsch. Goring and Himmler also want Rohm down. They plot together to frame that the SA want a putsch so Hitler will be forced to dismiss SA. 17th June 34: Von Papen, vice Chancellor, makes speech criticizing SA and their demand for a second revolution. 30th June 34: Night of the Long Knives. Early hours of the day, while SA are out on annual leave, Hitler orders arrest of Röhm and other SA leaders. In Berlin, Göring is rounding up SA men on his death list. No trial. All men were shot. Röhm refused his captors' invitation to suicide himself. He was shot by 2 SS men. The purge included some people not in the SA, as the leaders in charge of the purge took the opportunity to settle old scores. 83-200 died during the night of the long knives.

Nazi economy:

• Defence economy: getting the country ready for war
• Economic self-sufficiency: autarchy
• J. M. Keynes's "deficit financing": using the government's money to create employment & stimulate demand artificially.

• H. Schacht: President of the Reich Bank (1933-39) & Minister of economy (1934-37).

Schacht started employment programmes:

• Motorways
• Afforestation (planting trees)
• Public buildings

Successful:

• Unemployment down to 1.7million by mid 1935
• Unemployment decreases further, with help of world economic recovery

Problems:

• Inflation: Schacht kept strong control on prices and wages to avoid inflation
• Negative balance of trade: Germany imported (raw materials for armament) more than it exported. Because of this, Germany had a shortage of foreign currency. There was a disagreement on how the foreign currency should be used. Army and businesses insisted on pursuing imports of raw materials.

1934: Schacht's new plan:

• Tries to establish a government control on trade and exchange currency.
• Tries to slow down rearmament and increase exports.
• Hitler unimpressed.

1936: The four-year plan: Göring became the dictator of the German economy. His aim was to prepare Germany for war. Priorities of the plan:

• Increase agricultural production
• Place certain pro-Nazi workers in key areas of industry
• Re-train workers to produce armaments
• Establish tight government control on imports and exports
• Increase production of raw materials and step up parliament

Success: aluminium and explosive production greatly expanded Failure: rubber and oil did not increase, neither did rearmament Winners: Big businesses Losers: Small businesses

The Propaganda machine:

Minister of propaganda is Goebbels.

Radio: Only 25% of population had radio in 1933. By 1939, over 70% had a radio. Goebbels believed the radio was more effective than the press in reaching people. Goebbels brought all radios under "The Reich's Radio Company". Goebbels made available cheap radio sets so all families could have a radio.

Press: 4'700 newspapers By 1939, 2/3 newspapers owned by the state. 1933: Editor's law: All news censored before newspapers had access to it. Compulsory press conferences in Berlin every morning to tell editors what they could/should write about. Editors made personally responsible for what was written in their paper.

The system of government:

1. The relation between party and state:

Party (group of people who believe in the same ideas. Has no power) vs. State (administration and civil service).

• Hitler believed the party should tell the state what to do
• Key positions in civil service and administration occupied by Nazi members
• Propaganda convinced public opinion (at home and abroad) that Germany had a clear and effective system of government. (Untrue)
• Confusion came from the unclear relation between party and state
• The party's views: (two opposing views)

o Party should control the state by replacing state officials with high-ranking party members. o Germany has a well-staffed and competent administration. No need to purge it and establish party control.

• Hitler's position was ambivalent (took both sides):

o February 1934: publicly proclaimed party should simply implement government's policy and organize propaganda. o September 1934: stated "it is not the state which commands us, but rather we who command the state".

• Hitler's position was ambivalent simply because the Nazi Party was not a uniform organization but rather a combination of specialized "agencies", such as Hitler's Youth, DAF, Teachers' League, etc. These had sometimes diverging interests. Hitler needed to avoid antagonizing party people.
• Hitler was unclear himself: NSDAP was designed to gain power (successful), not geared to rule over the state.

Establishing party control:

Rudolph Hess: Deputy Fuhrer 1935: Right to control all appointment and promotion within the civil service. 1939: Made it compulsory for all civil servants to join the party. Supervision of the state now in place.

2. The role of Hitler:

In theory, Hitler was in control of all the aspects of the government, and was undisputed leader of the country. In practice, however, it was impossible for one man to have total control over government action. It was necessary to rely on loyal and sympathetic assistants. Also, Hitler's personality was not favourable to clear and effective leadership, as:

• Hitler believed willpower was the solution to all problems. There was no need for discussions.
• Hitler disliked paperwork and administrative tasks.
• Hitler hated meetings.
• Hitler tended to focus his attention on 'pet projects', and disliked being distracted (eg: architecture).
• Hitler had unusual sleeping hours.
• Hitler disliked making decisions.

The result of this was chaos and confusion.

Explanations:

• "Internationalist school" led by Brackner:

Chaos was the result of Hitler's policy of 'divide and rule'. No clear directives given so as to create disagreement among ministries.

• "Structuralist school" led by Mommsen:

Chaos was the result of Hitler's inability to provide a strong and clear leadership and of existence of too many power groups in Germany. (Hitler was too weak a dictator).

The French Revolution

Ancien Régime: The political system (laws and institutions) of France before the revolution (1789).

The King's power was absolute, however, the King never really acted despotically. He did not act without reason, as he could have done. The King is not responsible to anyone (but God). The King had been put in place by God. This was a way to ensure no-one would revolt against the King. The régime in France was not a despotic one: the King followed laws& customs of the country.

Ministers:

• Controller-General: In charge of royal finances.

Very powerful.

• There was no prime minister, nor any cabinet where all ministers met to make common decisions.

Provinces: Intendants:

• Powerful representatives of King in the provinces, in charge of:

o Supervising collection of taxes o Enforcing law and order o Responsible for public works, commerce, industry, etc.

• These people could only be appointed and removed by the King. Louis XVI did not like making decisions, and did not check on these people. They had a lot of liberty because of this.

Taxes:

• Direct taxation:

o Taille (tax on land, paid mostly by peasants. Towns and noblemen are exempt) o Capitation (community charge) o Vingtième (5% income tax)

• Indirect taxation:

o Gabelle (tax on salt) o Aides (tax on food and drinks) o Octrois (taxes on goods brought into town)

Problems:

• Government never makes enough money (out of taxation) to cover its expenditure. Therefore, it has to borrow money (especially in war time). The proportion of the government's budget spent on paying interests on debt became increasingly large (50%).
• Method of collecting taxes was chaotic and ineffective. Widespread corruption: the accountants that collected direct taxation kept a large part of it for themselves. (These accountants could not be dismissed because they had bought their job.)
• There was no central treasury where all the money collected was kept (recorded).

There are checks on the King's authority:

• Provincial Estates (Pays d'état): These were the areas last conquered and annexed by France. Because of this, they had retained a certain amount of independence: privileges and rights:

o Finances (exempt from some taxes) o Justice

• The Parlements (Law courts): France was divided into 13 'legal areas', each headed by a supreme court called the Parlement. 2300 Magistrates sat at these law courts. They were the 'nobles de robe', meaning the job they had bought conferred them the nobility status (they could not be dismissed). The had political as well as legal power. All laws (or edicts) issued by the King had to be registered by each Parlement before becoming effective. The Parlement could criticize and reject laws, but the ultimate power remained with the King. The King's attempts to reform the tax system to extend it to cover the aristocracy as well were systematically rejected by the Parlements.

o The Magistrates were selfishly protecting their material interests (1960s interpretation). o The Magistrates were representing their interests and restricting the King's absolute authority (more recent interpretation).

French Society - the Three Estates.

1) THE CLERGY 0.5% of total pop. High: noblemen, wealthy e.g. archbishop of Strasbourg's income was of 400,000 livres. Low: poor, normal parish priests e.g. income of 1000 livres. Land: the Church owned 10% so largest single owner Tithes: tax on land owners of 8% of crops to be given to the Church for the upkeep, maintenance and repair of religious buildings, to support priests and to relieve the poor Privileges: collecting the tithe, being exempt from taxation (NB Church paid 5% of income per year to King in a lump sum) and having the Catholic religion as the King's religion so the official French one. Functions: - practice religion - relieve the poor - censorship - run schools and hospitals - keep records of birth, marriages and deaths - act as the 'ministry of information' e.g. communication of the King's new laws to people during Sunday mass.

2) THE ARISTOCRISY 1.5% of pop. Courtiers: 4000 members noble before 1400 living @ court Noblesse de robe: noblemen who bought their titles so did not have as much prestige as the courtiers but had +++ power Provincial nobility: have titles but not much money. Live in countryside Land: 30% of France which is their main source of income. Privileges: exempt from all taxes except the 2Oième no military service never imprisoned exclusive hunting and fishing rights only noblemen could obtain high positions such as ministers, military officers, high clergymen collection of feudal dues from peasants renting their land tried in special law courts monopoly over mills, ovens and wine presses (main income of provincial nobility)

3) THE THIRD ESTATE 98% of pop. Bourgeoisie: 2.3 million commoners e.g. traders, lawyers, financers, doctors, professors, civil servants. Their sources of income include: land (80% of private wealth), rentes (interest on gov. stocks) ? honourable trade, finance, industry (20% of wealth)  ? dishonourable As soon as they had enough money, the bourgeoisie would buy a title for aristocracy and invest in land. Peasants: 85% of pop. Generally poor and uneducated. Many owned land but not enough to keep themselves so rented some from landowners ($$$) or worked as day labourers. 25% of peasants owned no land so had no way of improvement. One million were serfs (slaves) who could not own land and belonged to their land! They earned no $ but got basic accommodation, food and clothes for their labour. Peasants paid taxes to the Church, State and also paid feudal dues to landlords. Urban workers: 3% of pop, most living in Paris. Actors of the Rev. Some have skills (blacksmiths, carpenters, etc.) and guilds (unions of trade) and make a decent living. Others are poor and unskilled, working 16hr per day, 6days per week under bad conditions. There is overcrowding and poor sanitary conditions (?disease). The urban workers are vulnerable to the price of bread (3/4 of their diet), esp. as btw 1726-89 wages decreased by 22% while bread price rose by 65%.

Historiography of the Hierarchy of French Society before 1789

1960s: 'ARISTOCRATIC REACTION' had caused the French Rev. The bourgeoisie became increasingly jealous of aristocratic privileges, frustrated and hostile towards the nobility. However, the aristocracy monopolised power although they declined economically. The bourgeoisie started the Rev. to replace the 2nd Estate in position and power. Nowadays: the theory above is largely abandoned as recent studies show that nobility was not a closed cast as higher ranks of the Bourgeoisie were constantly 'joining' the aristocracy by acquiring a noble title either by direct grant of the King, by buying it or by buying an office that carried nobility. Evidence: late 18th C. + 2000 families ennobled by purchasing a venal office + 4000 families ennobled by the King 1720-90 90% of the farmer generals (tax collectors of bourgeoisie) became noble bourgeoisie that made money in trade, bought a title and sold their business to invest in land.

The Enlightenment 18th C. philosophical and literary movement. Philosophers included Voltaire: "écrasez l'infame ? criticism of the Church Montesquieu "L'esprit des lois" ? criticism of despotism Diderot: first encyclopedia of 36 volumes to be accessible to all Rousseau...not only noblemen Censorship of a few (e.g. Voltaire sent to la Bastille repeatedly) - defense of freedom (of speech, press, assembly, etc.) vs arbitary arrest - more democratic ways - defeat of ignorance and prejudice - restriction of King's power by laws - but NOT in favour of equal rights. Influence on noble people but not middle class. ? did they provide ideas for the Rev. or did these only become relevant after it had taken place?

The Financial Crisis

Problem: deficit of 112 million livres by 1786 i.e. 1/4 of total gov. income!

Causes: - France had been at war for 20 years: - vs Austria 1740 to 1748 (very costly and required heavy borrowing) - vs England 1756 to 1763 esp: - in the American War of Independence 1778 to 1783 - The gov. found borrowing increasingly hard and had to pay high interest rates because its loans were not guaranteed (the British gov. was also heavily indebted but was guaranteed by its Parliament of which there was none in France) - Corruption: tax money did not reach the gov. - Difficult to pass reforms ? reasons and details mentioned above. - Many (2%) exempt from taxes. However, many were poor and taxing them would not solve the debts.

Solutions: Jacques NECKER appointed to run Louis's financial situation during the American War of Independence. He obtained loans but at high rates and also tried to introduce reforms: a) Replaced 50 powerful attendants and intendants :) with salaried officials. b) Set up the Central Treasury. c) Brought the Ministers of Marine and War (most $$$) under his control ? ministers threatened to resign and so the King dismissed Necker in 1781.

Six reactionary years: CALONNE replaced Necker and spent his time undoing the reforms then in place. For example, the fifty odd tax collectors were back! However, he attempted another reform: he tried to change the tax system so that a new land tax would be applied to all instead of the 20ième and capitation. Calonne knew the Parlement would block this reform so he persuaded the King to call for the Assembly of Notables (group of presidents of Parlement and leading nobles and clergy who had not met since 1626) to decide. The King was dumb and chose members not favouring him but according to tradition, the idiot! So they decided that only the General Estates (had not met since 1614!) could decide on the matter. Louis XVI dismissed Calonne in 1787 as he was unpopular because of his new land tax to which the clergy was very opposed.

DE BRIENNE replaced Calonne. His reforms were a mix of Calonne's and Necker's:

• land tax (wie C.)
• setting up a Central Treasury
• making the army more efficient and less $$$

Paris Parlement rejects reforms. King exiles the Parlement to Troyes Aug. 1787 Called back to Paris Sept. 1787 (crown paralysed by refusal to cooperate) De Brienne gives up his reforms. Summer 1788: all loans are refused and the King's treasury is empty. De Brienne must stop all govt payments due to the bankruptcy. He calls for Estates General to meet 8th May 1789, resigns and suggests Necker returns.

NECKER: - raises the loans to make the government function - refuses to do anything before the Estates General have met. - The KING is thus forced the authority of the Estates General by the Financial Crisis and due to the Parlement's opposition.

The Aristocratic Revolt

3rd MAY 1788: the Paris Parlement proclaims the Fundamental Rights -new taxation must be approved by the Estates General -no freemen can be imprisoned w/out trial -the King cannot change the customs and traditions of the provinces

8th MAY 1788: the King restricts the parlements' powers considerably by taking away their right to register and approve royal decrees.

Violent reaction of the aristocrats who oppose a return of despotism: -riots in provincial capitals where parlements seige -noblemen organise illegal meetings to discuss action to support the parlements -the Assemblé des Clergé sides w/ the parlements, vs. the King, condemns his action, thus breaking trad. of loyalty.

How serious was the aristocratic revolt? It would probably die away as: -revolts were restricted to certain areas geographically isolated, far from Paris and each other -no coodinated action -no popular support in Paris for the noblemen

However the Financial Crisis gave the aristocrats new strength.

The Estates General

1st ESTATE: 300 reps-mostly parish priests of the lower clergy with ~50 bishops 0.5% pop 1 vote

2nd ESTATE: 300 reps-mostly poor, conservative provincial noblemen -than 100 liberal 2% pop 1 vote

3rd ESTATE: 300 reps-educated, wealthy, articulate, mostly venal office holders + lawyers, no peasants or urban worker. Only ones paying taxes could vote for Parisian electors who would in turn vote for the actual reps to represent the estate in Paris .: usually richest peasants only had a say. 98% pop 1 vote

THE KING- took no lead role or decision. The 3rd Estate lacked experience and leadership and would probably have agreed to any proposals the King failed to put forward ® missed opp.?

The grievances of each Estate-Cahiers de Doléances

1st: conservative 2nd: liberal 3rd: less liberal

Factors in common: -vs absolute royal power -elected assembly w/ right to vote for taxes and pass laws -regular meetings of Estates General

Grievances of the 3rd Estate: -end the tithe -financial and tax equality -end of seigneural rights -regulation of grain trade -regular meeting of the Estates General -civil liberties -careers open to talent (=/ obtained by birth or $)

Main differences btw 3rd E. and 1st & 2nd E.: The 3rd Estate wanted to have double the number of reps cos majority of pop ® granted by King Also wished for voting by head (ie = to number of reps) instead of by estate ® denied by King

Estates General Meetings

5th MAY 1789: the 3rd E insists on meeting w/ 1st and 2nd and vote by head. 1st and 2nd E. refuse and decide to meet the trad way in sep bodies. 3rd E refuses to start debates ® deadlock.

10th JUNE 1789: 3rd E start debating, claiming they rep majority of pop

17th JUNE 1789: 3rd E declare themselves the Assemblée Nationale (491/581 votes for). Some 1st E reps join them. The King organises a Royal Session for the 23rd.

20th JUNE 1789: 3rd E finds 'their' hall locked (due to preps for Royal Session). They move to a nearby tennis court where they take the Tennis Court Oath not to dissolve until a constitution has been drawn up.

23rd JUNE 1789: following the Royal Session, the King announces the Estates shall meet separately but agrees to: -let the Estates General decide on taxation -allow freedom of press -abolish internal customs barriers However, these measures are taken too late.

26th JUNE 1789: 3rd E joined by 151 1st E reps + 67 2nd E reps ® led by the Duc d'Orléans who establishes their heardquarters in the Palais Royal (the Louvre) where 1000s (inc. King's troops) meet every nite to listen to revolutionary speeches.

27th JUNE 1789: King goes back on his decision and orders the 3 estates to meet together. The King's intentions here are unclear but by July 1st 20,000 troops have gathered in Paris.

11th JULY 1789: the King has 30,000 troops in Paris and feels strong enough to dismiss Necker.

12th JULY 1789: -news of Necker's dismissal reaches Paris -1000s rush to the Palais Royal looking for directions -are told to take up arms ® search for weapons and gunpowder starts -poor Parisians attack hated custom booth, most r destroyed -respectable and wealthy Parisians worried about the violence -Parisian electors set up a Commune (ie provisional government) and a National Guard to defend private property and defend the rev. vs royal troops.

14th JULY 1789: ~250,000 sans culottes storm the Bastille. The royal troops prove to be unreliable.

The Peasants' revolution

The Economic Crisis of 1770's WINE PROD: affected all peasants as it was an important cash crop. HARVEST FAILURES: in 1778-9, 1781-2, 1785-6 Major disaster in 1788 as a harvest failure led to unemployment as people spent all their 50% of their income buying bread (price +50% by Feb 1789) and had no $ left to buy manufactured goods. By Spring 1789 this % rose to 88 of their income! TEXTILES PROD: 50% of indus. prod. hit v. badly 50% decrease in supply and employment. ® explosive ambiance in Paris and countryside @ the time the Estates General meet.

The Peasants' Revolt 1788-89 Harvest failure, increase bread prices and unemployment led to frustration which translated itself into demonstrations and riots. This probably would have ended w/ the new harvest if it had not been for the meeting of the Estates General and the fall of the Bastille which gave the riots a new force.

1) Peasants had actively and enthusiastically drawn up the Cahiers de Doléances. They assumed that this meant the King would listen to them since he had asked for it, and thus when they themselves put their proposals into effect (eg stop paying the tithe) they thought they simply anticipated the King's will. 2) The storming of the Bastille set up an example for seizing lords' castles to get hold of their grain (famine) and destroy the terriers (legal list of peasants' obligations to lord) but not to kill and harm the lord. Little bloodshed despite many attacks. The Great Fear (cause & consequence of peasants' violence ie cyclic) 20th JULY-5th AUGUST 1789 A rumour spread throughout France in 2 weeks that the noble lords had hired groups of brigands or thugs to destroy the next harvest to starve the peasants. In order to defend their fields, the peasants took up arms and when the thugs did not come, they attacked castles instead. The August Decrees which abolished feudalism put an end to this.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Declaration of the Rights of Man, condemning the ideas and practiced of the Ancien Régime and replacing them with democratic principles of freedom and equality, is issued by the Assemblée Nationale in AUG 1789.

The King refuses to sign the August Decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The National Assembly decide to give him 4 years of vetoing power for legislations, while the laws will be made by the Nat. Assembly. The King is given executive power. However -no talks of abolishing the monarchy -and replacing it w/ a republic

The October Days 1st OCT 1789: a banquet organised by the Royal Guards turns into an anti-rev. demonstration. The news reaches Paris and demands that the royal family move back to the capital spread.

5th OCT 1789: -women storm l'Hotel de Ville (where the Commune has its' HQ) -7000 are persuaded to march to Versailles to talk to the King and the Nat. Assembly. They are followed by 20,000 National Guards for their protection. -storming of the Nat. Assembly -a delegation is sent to the King who agrees to provide grain, sign the Aug. Decrees and Declaration and move back to Paris.

Impact of these events

• the King considers himself prisoner of the Paris mob
• he feels he is forced to do things he doesn't approve of
• the Nat. Assembly also move back to Paris, feeling ignored, humiliated and imprisoned too

® few chances of reaching a compromise with the King now.

Reforms of the National Assembly

AIM: introduce a decentralised, uniform, egalitarian system, end the conflict, supersition and poverty ® set up a new society of free men.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS: Reorganisation of France's administration into 83 départements, divided into districts, subdivided into municipalities Voting system changed to become the most democratic in Europe, representing 61% of the population (second highest rate in England with 4%). Active citizens, those who could pay 3 day's labour in taxes and had time could vote for elected municipal councils (=/ passive citizens). The councils were controlled by a majority of bourgeoisie whose tasks were to - carry out public works - collect taxes - upkeep churches - maintain law and order - control the National Guards Councils were generally more effective in towns, where they were led by more educated men rather than in the countryside.

FINANCIAL REFORMS: - taxation was made = for all citizens ® to be implanted w/in two years (by 1791) - all have to pay taxes at all administrative levels However, the masses did not understand this need for time. Taxation was their main grievances in the Cahiers. March 1790 the Nat. Assembly is forced (violence) to give in and abolish indirect taxation. Problem: how to make up for a decreased income? Solution: selling the Church's land ® 50% bourgeoisie ® 50% peasants (for many it is the 1st time they own any land) January 1791 a New Land Tax (Calonne's idea) is introduced on = basis. However, it was inefficient as it was based on the land tax of the Ancien Régime rather than on a new survey and valuation of the land (too $$$) Nevertheless it was + democratic as it weighed more on producers rather than consumers.

ECONOMIC REFORMS: - Laissez-faire economy introduced ie: no government interference or regulation of production - Trade unions and strikes made illegal - A single system of weights and measures introduced (decimal) to facilitate trade.

JUDICIAL REFORMS: Aimed to create a + democratic and humane uniform judicial system. - Different legal codes in existence abolished - All old legal courts abolished - New law courts set up so that: 1) each dept. had a criminal law court 2) trials would be public 3) juries would be composed of 12 citizens chosen by ballot to decide guilty/ innocent - Penal code made more humane (torture and mutilations made illegal, death penalty by guillotine reduced to cases of high treason, criminals to be brought before a court w/in 24hrs) - All judges to be elected.

RELIGIOUS REFORMS: Aimed * to make it more democratic * stop foreign interference from the Vatican * reorganisation along new admin. system - tithe abolished ® all met with Church's approval inc. selling of land - annual papal payments abolished - pluration abolished (ie bishops no longer able to hold more than one diocese) JULY 1790: the Civil Constitution of the Clergy made an attempt to reorganise the Church's structure. - one diocese (.: one bishop) per dept. ® cut number of bishops by 40% - bishops and priests must reside in their see or parish - all clergy to be elected ® disapproved by the clergy but willing to find compromise w/ Nat. Assembly The Pope was also opposed to this (but he took his sweet time to declare his position and provide leadership) NOVEMBER 1790: Nat. Assembly declares all clergy must take an oath on the Constitution to support the rev. Few bishops refused but only 55% did. SPRING 1791: the Pope condemns the oath and many retract. Consequence: Catholic Church divided into 2 factions: jurors/ non-jurors ie counter revolutionaries. These were joined by millions of peasants who thought the Nat. Assembly interfered w/ their religion.

Political Clubs ~played a important role in * keeping the public informed about issues discussed * presenting candidates for elections * putting pressure on deputies to debate Les JACOBINS: - moderate views - liberal, constitutional monarchists - +++ membership fee - 1200 members by 1790 all of whom were v. rich - national network of 900 branches set up over France by Spring 1790 - minority of radical members led by Robespierre

Les CORDELIERS: - more radical views - bourgeois composition and leadership (Danton, Morat) (labourers had no time) - no membership fee, open to all - supported sans-culottes' demands for direct democracy (vote for all) ie opposed the distinction between active and passive citizens ® support from the sans-culottes - national network spontaneously set up

Popular Discontent Les SANS-CULOTTES: felt they had been 'used' by the rev. but obtained nothing in return~ - most passive citizens - workers in towns eg: artisans and craftsmen owning their shops, wage-earners - inflation (wages fell while prices increased) - bad harvest of 1791 ® increased price of bread ® riots They therefore put pressure on the Nat. Assembly to pass reforms in their favour

The PEASANTS: also dissatisfied as feudal dues had not been abolished but redeemed (they had to pay $$$ to landlords to be 'excused' from paying feudal dues in the future). Also, the 1791 bad harvest made them revolt, until 1792 in certain areas (Britany, Centre, South East), as they attacked castles and refused to pay taxes.

The Flight to Varennes June 20th 1791 Under Marie Antoinette's pressure and upset by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, Louis XVI decided to flee to Montmidy in Lorraine, next to Luxembourgs (where his wife's cousis resided) and negociate from there with the Nat. Assembly. However, the royal family, badly disguised, was recognised, stopped @ Varennes and brought back to Paris. Consequences: - the King's popularity decreased and his image was destroyed - open debate whether to replace the monarchy w/ a republic - the moderates who had hoped to end the rev. by reaching a compromise w/ the King now had a harder time to support this as Louis XVI had shown he could not be trusted. The moderates had previously been led by Mirabeau, an outstanding politician in the National Assembly elected to represent the 3rd E. He was a monarchist who wanted to establish a limited monarchy w/ a government responsible to the Nat. Assembly. He was, however, accused of treachery, and died in April 1791.

Problems: What is to be done with the King? The RADICALS insisted the monarchy should be replaced by a republic. The Cordelier persuades the radical Jacobins to join them in presenting a republican petition to the Nat. Assembly. The moderate Jacobins left the club and set up a new group: the Feuillants who now had control of the Nat. Assembly The NATIONAL ASSEMBLY was opposed to a republic. JULY 16th 1791: Nat. Assembly suspends the King until a Constitution is completed and the King swears on it. For the moderates, this was already going to far while for the radicals, it was not enough (ie: internal disputes).

The Champs de Mars Massacre JULY 17th 1791 500,000 poor Parisians assemble on the Champs de Mars where the celebration of the fall of the Bastille had taken place three days before. They are preparing a republican petition to submit as a direct challenge to the National Assembly. The Commune under pressure from the Nat. Assembly declares martial law and sends the National Guard, led by Lafayette to the Champs de Mars. The Guards open fire and kill ~50 people. Radical leaders are arrested or go into hiding. Moderates happy to have control back and hope to compromise with the king since they have lost popular support.

The 1791 constitution and New Legislative Assembly Completed in Sept. 1791, signed by the King on Sept. 14th 1791 though he disapproves of it. - King's position is subordinate to the National Assembly's - the King cannot veto financial or constitutional matters - the King does not have control over foreign policy (only the Nat. Assembly can declare war) Nat. Assembly's job finished (dissolved Sept. 30th 1791) ® elections for a new Legislative Assembly where only 1/4 of active citizens vote. Problems: * non-jurors seen as a threat * émigrés (nobility which left France) and army officers (60%) who have left are advised to return to France before Jan 1st 1792 else their land will be confiscated and they will be regarded as traitors. A law to state this is vetoed by the king whose unpopularity soars as a result. ® fear of counter-rev. plots widespread and justified!

The Coming of War vs Austria 1792 FOR: -Marie Antoinette and the court: hoped Austria would defeat France so that absolute monarchy would be restored -Lafayette: disillusioned by the rev., wanted to restore the king's power and thought a short war with Austria would increase his power and prestige. -Jacques Brissot (republican) -les Girondins (deputies in the Leg. Assembly who abolish the monarchy and trial the King) thought a war would expose the King and traitors, increase enthusiasm for the rev. and make the new regime permanent. -those who believed that a war would eliminate division and strengthen the rev. International relations were fine for a war as Britain would not join in, Russia was busy w/ Poland and, Prussia if it joined, would most probly do so on the French's side. In addition, the army would have the support of the enemy's repressed subjects.

AGAINST: Robespierre who passionately believed war was bad. He distrusted Lafayette's reasons for a war. He believed the war would overthrow the Constitution. He became isolated and unpopular at this point.

FEBRUARY Austria and Prussian make open threats to France MARCH King Leopold of Austria dies. His son, the new king, is war-like and ready to fight France ® + threats APRIL France declares war, Prussia joins Austria vs France.

SIG of WAR: it led to the destruction of the 1789 consensus, fall of the monarchy, a civil war, and the Terror.

The Abolition of Monarchy - defeat in war: major destertions and treachery (Marie Antoinette sent military plans to the Austrians for example) - king dismisses the Girondin ministers - he veotes laws vs non-jurors and one to set up 20,000 men National Guard to defend Paris - 8000 Parisians storm the Tuileries June 20th 1792, led by Cordelier leaders - the king still refuses to reappoint the ministers or w/draw his veto - 11th July 'la patrie en danger' mobilises more soldiers - Brunswick Manifesto August 1st 1792: commander-in-chief of Prussia threatens to destroy Paris if anything happens to the King and Queen. This was intended to help the King but had the adverse effect. - Parisians angered. - Storming of the Tuileries and Leg. Assembly on August 10th 1792 to depose the King and put Lafayette on trial (wished by the Guards, Clubs, Provinces) - New revolutionary Commune set up with the control of Paris (although Nat. Assembly was the only body recognised in the Provinces) It needs the support of the people so it abolished feudal dues w/ compensation (unless the loads had the title-deeds) and sold the émigrés' land. - King put in prison by the new Commune - National Assembly forced to accept new elections for a National Convention (new assembly) elected by universal male suffrage - Convention meets September 20th 1792 - Monarchy abolished September 21st 1792 by the Convention (® King executed January 21st 1793)

Tsarist Russia to communist USSR

Why was there a revolution in Russia?

Long-term causes:

• Inability of Nicolas II to show flexibility and change
• The failure of the economic reforms
• The absence of a middle class
• The unwillingness of the system to create one
• The weak personality of the Tsar

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

Sergei Witte: 1893-1903, Finance minister.

Objective: Industrialization Means: a) Foreign loan (1892-4, Franco-Russian alliance gave Russia an extensive loan.) b) Export grain (through collecting surplus grain) c) Taxation (indirect): inflationary side-effects

Policies included: i) Encouraging migration from countryside to town ii) Building railways (1891-1902 trans-Siberian built).

NEGATIVE EFFECTS: - It put too much strain on the population (through taxes, extract of surplus grain, etc.) - Made Russia dependant on foreign loans - Brought about industrialization, which brought all the negative aspects of industrialization, such as bad housing, bad sanitation, bad working conditions, etc. - Created more show-pieces (trans-Siberian) rather than what people needed. - Raised expectations, which were not always fulfilled - Inflationary (see P.25) - Did not stimulate internal consumption

POSITIVE EFFECT: - Industrialization of Russia.

Why did autocracy have difficulties to survive in 20th C?

- Inability to distribute wealth, at a time of industrialization, prevented the growth of a middle class. As a result:

• Autocracy lost/did not have the backing of a non-revolutionary middle-class (unlike Germany)
• Russian economy continued to depend on the state.

- The exchange of ideas between W. Europe & Russia caused by better means of communication. - National minorities. Alexander III's policy of Russification raised the persecution of minorities (worse hit were the Jewish community (5 million). - Incompetence of Nicolas II.

Foreign policy:

Main objectives: 1) Protection of Slavs. Pan-slavism (friendliness towards Slavs). 2) Control of Dardenelles Straits.

Events: 1908: Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria. Russi did nothing to help, which caused disillusionment among Pan-slavs (friends of slavs). 1904-1905: Outbreak of Russo-Japanese war Clash of interests over control of Northern China (Manchuria) Russia chose war as a means of showing her strength and improving her domestic problems. Instead, the defeat caused more opposition to the Tsar. Feb 1904: War began Sept 1905: Treaty of Portsmouth signed

1905 Revolution:

Opposition groups:

PEASANTRY: Populists (Narodniks): Originated mid 1800's, believed the peasantry was capable of revolutionary activity if they were taught. Therefore, they: Went to the countryside to teach Carried out terrorist activities

(SR) Social Revolutionaries - Led by Victor Chernov. (The name of the part that comes out of the Populists.)

Marxism:

Plekhanov translated Marx 1898, Social Democratic Labour Party is founded. Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) - Born 1870. 1902 - What is to be done? - Lenin

MARXISM:

• Founder of the Marxist party: Social Democratic Labour Party was Plekhanov in 1898.
• Lenin joins the party
• With Martov, he founds ISKRA, the newspaper of the party in 1901.
• Lenin is exiled to England
• Lev Bronstein (Trotsky), a member of SDLP, is also arrested, runs away and joins Lenin in London. Trotsky also works on ISKRA.
• 1902, Lenin publishes What is to be done? Where he argues that the party should be small, professional, and lead the working class.
• Inside the party, Democratic Centralism rules: after a decision has been taken, no member is allowed to disagree with it.
• He was opposed to economism: those revolutionaries who believed in improving the lives of the workers.

Liberalism

System needs to be reformed. Autocracy should simply be replaced by a constitutional monarchy. 1902: Union of Liberals formed. 2 parties created after 1905 revolution: - Octobrists - Kadets (cadets) - constitutional democrats

1905 REVOLUTION :

22nd January 1905 (Sunday) Father Gapon.

The Duma period

Elections: - Universal suffrage in 5 major cities (indirect voting elsewhere)

Upper house: - half appointed - half through the Zemstras

The Effects of 1905

In the long run, the events f 1905 strengthened the system (and allowed the Tsar not to keep his word):

1. The revolutionary organization appeared unprepared and incapable of leading. Many revolutionaries joined the liberals and became more moderate.

Kadets: - Constitutional democrats - Believed the system could gradually be reformed through the Duma - Membership was mainly small industrialists, small landlords, professional classes - Leader was Milyukov (history professor)

Octobrists: - Fully satisfied with manifesto - Did not want to reform the system any further - Membership mainly large landlords, large industrialists, aristocracy - Leaders were Guchkov (factory owner), and Rodzianko (a landlord)

2. Army remained loyal. The mutiny did not spread. 3. Ironically, the system strengthened because the Western European Democracies now treated her more respectfully. This paved the way for the signing of the Anglo-Russian Accord, in August 1907. 4. The fundamental laws of 23rd April 1906 (a week before the opening of the Duma) gave the Tsar the 'autocratic power' and stated that no law could come into force without his approval. 5. Brought to power Stolypin (chief of state = prime minister), who is capable of introducing reform at the same time as repressing all opposition.

BUT: 1905 revolution can be considered as a 'dress-rehearsal' for 1917 revolution.

Stolypin's reforms:

Objective: 'De-revolutionise' the peasants. Method: 1. Renounces the redemption payments 2. Peasantry given permission to leave the mir 3. A land bank to offer credit 4. Very repressive policy towards revolutionaries. (25'000 executed 1906-1911).

STOLYPIN WAS ASSASSINATED IN 1911.

Alternative to autocracy

Dual power: 1) 12-man committee:

• Provisional government headed by Prince Lvov
• 12 members of the 4th Duma prepared to take on responsibility of government
• Legal, but lacked mandate from people

2) Petrograd Soviet:

• First soviet president was a Menshevik (Chkheidze)
• A soviet council of workers, soldiers, peasants and sailors responsible for the everyday running of the events
• Lacked legitimacy, but was popular

There is no objection to the Dual Power situation at first because the majority of opposition groups accept the fact that nothing can be done before a constituent assembly meets. Exception to this point of view comes from Lenin. Lenin reaches Petrograd in April and announces his view in a pamphlet called the April Thesis. In this thesis, he claims that the revolutionaries should not support the provisional government because it cannot satisfy the people:

• It cannot bring peace because it is loyal to the Allies
• It cannot distribute land because this would be disruptive to the war effort
• It cannot improve the economy, because it is a government of the capitalists.

Therefore, with the slogan "Peace, Land and Bread", he urges the Bolsheviks to gain a majority in the Soviet with and aim to overthrow the provisional government.

Position of Provisional Government on question of War:

• War should be continued. Kerensky (SR), minister of war, announces a new offensive, "Strengthened by the vigour and the spirit of the Revolution".
• General Brusilov leads the offensive on the south-western front against Austria-Hungary, but they are defeated.
• There was growing desertion because:

o Soldiers preferred to be back in their village in case land was being distributed o Lack of discipline. Order #1 from the soviet allowed the soldiers not to obey their officers o Pacifist propaganda, put out by Bolsheviks and Enemies.

• Many socialists (Mensheviks - SR) decide to join the Provisional Governmnet. Prince Lvov leaves, and is replaced by Kerensky.
• Provisional Government now has 6 socialists (out of 12). Effects:

o Mensheviks and SR associated with continuation of war and delaying reforms o Mensheviks and SR jointly responsible for failure of new government o Raised popularity of Bolsheviks

July Days:

A march from Kronstadt to St. Petersburg with the slogan "All power to the Soviet" was dispersed by the police. The Provisional Government accused the Bolsheviks of wanting to overthrow the government.

• The Bolshevik newspaper PRAVDA was banned
• Many leading members, including Trotsky, were arrested
• Lenin escapes to Finland

The Kournilov Affair

General Kournilov, the Chief of Staff, attempts to rally support for a counter-revolution. Kerensky, fearing the restoration of the Tsar, opens the prison doors, and arms the Bolsheviks, asking for their assistance. Trotsky organises Red Guard militias (armed workers) and even though the attempted coup never happens, the militias keep their weapons.

• Sept 1st, Kerensky proclaims a republic. A move to reassure the people the Tsar cannot come back.

October Revolution:

The date was to coincide with the meeting of the 2nd Congress of the Soviets. Events:

• After the Kournilov affair, Trotsky maintained the Military Revolutionary Committee (Militia).
• Oct 21st: Petrograd garrison accepted the MRS (Military Revolutionary Committee) as supreme authority
• Oct 23rd: Peter-Paul fortress made same move
• Oct 24th: Kerensky closed the Bolshevik Paper
• Trotsky ordered the seal to be broken (break back into the printing press to take control of the Paper once again).
• Throughout the night, the Red Guards took over the Tauride Palace.
• Oct 25th: At the meeting of the congress, the Soviet was told that the Provisional Government was fallen.

Stalin's rise to power

Stalin: characteristics:

1. Less respectful to democratic principles than those who are more familiar with the history of Western Europe, struggles, debates, etc. that took place in the 19th century. 2. More ruthless and less bound by certain principles. 3. Had a grudge against the "émigré" community: those who could afford to (and had the privilege of) spend time abroad. (Trotsky fulfilled this role, and was a newcomer to the party.) 4. More familiar with Russian customs, and mentality.

Positions held by Stalin - How they helped his rise to power:

• Deutscher calls him "committee-man par excellence".
• Commissar of nationalities (Oct 1917): responsible for minorities in Russia. (Out of 140 million, 65 million belonged to national minorities.)
• Regions that were more backward, and regions more suspicious of central government.
• Stalin was a Georgian.

Stalin, as representative of central government, managed to gain a great deal of power and loyalty to his person rather than to the government. Stalin will introduce many Georgians into the Politburo later.

[ Politburo ==> Central committee ==> party congress ]

• Commissar of workers and peasants inspectorate in 1919 (Rabkrin).
• The job of commissar was to "purify" and eliminate counter-revolutionary elements from the work-place, particularly the civil service.
• General secretary: post created for Stalin in 1922. Was meant to transit the decisions of the politburo to the party.
• Responsible for appointments, promotions, demotions.
• In daily contact with the party functionaries throughout the country.
• Prepared the agenda for the politburo.

1921: 10th Party Congress. (Kronstad rising, NEP year) Party establishes a "Central Controls Commission". Job of this was to purge the party from counter-revolutionary elements. Stalin voted (chosen) as head of this commission.

Party members: March 1921: 730'000 Jan 1924: 472'000

Elimination of rivals:

Lenin's premature death opened up a vacuum. Lenin's position could not be filled easily: 1. Because of the respect he had as the final arbiter 2. Because he did not hold a particular post as such.

Possible successors: Trotsky, Zinoviev, Stalin, Kamenev (all original politburo membership made of these people plus Lenin.) Zinoviev and Kamenev were against the October Revolution.

Trotsky: the most obvious choice for his: 1. Theoretical contribution 2. Reputation as a leader of Oct. Revolution and for Civil War.

Kamenev: known as an 'old' Bolshevik: accepted Lenin's view on party. In 1917, returns from exile. Opposed the idea of the armed rising in October. Made commissar of foreign trade in 1917 and Moscow party secretary.

Zinoviev: had been a member since 1903. Also, was an 'old' communist. Said to be good orator. He becomes the head of the Comintern.

Communist China 1949 -->

Background information:

• With the fall of the Manchu dynasty, Sun Yatsen takes over the government. However, he is not really followed. The Warlords take over, dividing up China into hundreds of smaller 'states' from 1916-26. Period of anarchy and chaos for China.
• Communist part born after end of WW1. 1919, Mao Zedong established the party on "May 4th movement". China must move forward:

o Nationalism o Democracy Claims of the Communist party o People's livelihood

• 1919-26/27, cooperation between GMD and CCP. Common enemy (Warlords) brings China together.
• 1925, Sun Yatsen dies. Chiang Kaishek takes over (military officer trained in Russia, but not sympathetic to Communism).
• End of Warlord period in China around 1927 brings to surface the clash between GMD and CCP. Surprise attack (1927) by GMD in Shanghai. 1/5th survives and escapes in south-east of China. Soviet established in this region. GMD continues to attack.
• GMD establishes capital in Nanking in 1927 (until 1937 when the Japanese attack). Enemy #1 is the CCP. GMD is better-equipped than CCP, and battles against CCP actively.
• CCP escapes via "Long March". 1/10th survives through 10'000km of trekking that lasts more than a year. Starts in 1934 and ends in 1935. Establish base in North of China. Communist tactics and practices started here. People impressed by this. In-touch with the people, and this made people more sympathetic to the CCP than to the GMD because of this.
• During the Long March, CCP raised a lot of support by staying in touch with the people and helping them, while teaching them the Communist ideology.
• Japan attacks in 1937. CCP gains popularity by pressuring GMD into a coalition against Japan. Chiang Kaishek is kidnapped and is later released provided he announces a united front against Japanese invaders. However, both sides fight alone, they just didn't fight each other.
• US enters the war, backing the GMD. They are impressed by CCP tactics in combat. Guerrilla tactics used by Mao prove to be highly successful. Japan loses the war, and so common enemy is gone.
• CCP and GMD therefore start fighting each other again, while US tries in vain to bring CCP and GMD into united government. Chiang Kaishek felt safe with American backing. Civil War starts. GMD known for its corruption and inefficiency. 1946--> October 1949. GMD loses and flees to Taiwan.

The PRC is established:

• Single-party state. Communist party.
• However, although not everyone has to be a member of the Communist party, non-party members are allowed into the government.

1. CCP represents the revolution, and what is best for China. Allowing opposition means allowing revolution. Counter-revolution --> disunity. 2. Circumstances (fighting long civil war) meant opposition was practically eliminated. CCP would not allow their enemy a victory when CCP had already won. 3. Copying of Soviet model. 4. Absence of tradition in China of Democracy.

Reforms:

Countryside: Problems faced:

1. Re-distribution of land 2. Raise production 3. Eliminate ruling class Landlords. No difficulty in eliminating, as are not needed 4. Keep their promises 5. Create a new power structure

Cities:

1. Industrialise and modernize 2. Social justice Capitalists are hard to get rid of, as they have the skills and 3. Keep their promises know how to run things. There becomes a distinction 4. Establish a power base between the national bourgeoisie and those cooperating with imperialism.

Steps taken:

1. Expropriation of the landlords. By 1952, most peasants owned their land 2. Encouraging notion of sharing. Shared land, labour, tools, but kept right to own and make profits a. Mutual aid teams (7-10 families) b. Simple collectives (up to 20 families) c. Advanced collectives (up to 100 families) By 1956, 95% peasantry belonged to some kind of collective. 3. 1958, 8th party congress. China goes to the next step: communes. Communes enforced communal living, for example, communal refectories, communal nurseries, communal dining halls, etc. This presumably raised efficiency, but was also a means to control the people.

In cities:

At first, cooperation with managerial class, as these people had the skill and know-how.

Steps:

1. 1951: the "3 Anti's": a. Anti corruption b. Anti waste c. Anti bureaucracy This was also a publicity stunt to rally the people together, and a way for CCP to keep their promises. 2. 1952: the "5 Anti's": a. Anti bribery b. Anti tax-evasion c. Anti theft-of-government-assets d. Anti cheating-on-labour & materials e. Anti state-economic-intelligence

Other economic reforms:

1. Five year plans: 1952-56. Based on Soviet model, but more modest and realistic. 2. Ending polygamy (30 April 1950) 3. Ending child marriages 4. Ending concubines 5. Literacy reforms: a. Simplify language. b. Increase number of schools 1949: 24.4 million primary school children 1953: 51.1 million 1949: 1.27 million secondary school children 1953: 3.13 million

Freedoms (or lack of them):

• 85% of press state-owned
• No criticism against CCP is allowed

Methods used to control society:

• Neighbour to spy on neighbour
• Workers to inform co-workers
• Children denouncing parents

1957: "Let 100 flowers bloom. Let 100 schools of thought contend"

• Open invitation to criticize
• The result was overwhelming. Many people were later reprimanded.

Great Leap Forward

5th - 23rd May 1958, 8th Party Congress decided that the pace of modernization was not fast enough. Great Leap Forward introduced.

Aim: To industrialise from grass root. Every village should own its backyard steel mill.

At first, there was a great deal of enthusiasm, but the plan was a fiasco for other reasons:

• Agriculture abandoned entirely to work on steel
• Lack of food
• Very poor quality

Why did it fail? 1. Over-ambitious and unrealistic 2. Bad harvests also due to bad weather leading to 17 million deaths (starvation) 3. People abandoning agriculture 4. Lack of expertise and know-how

The "three terrible years" ended when the government admitted that it had failed. Mao was put aside and ignored. Liu Shaoqi replaced him as president of the council.

• Deng Xia Ping also promoted.
• Both Liu Shaoqi and Xiaoping are from the right-side of the party.
• Mao "worshipped but not consulted" - treated like "dead ancestor".

By 1961, it was obvious that the GLF had failed. It was also the failure of the left (ie: communal/collectivized agriculture + rapid industrialization). Liu Shaoqi and Peng Xiaoping are appointed by Mao himself to end the chaos (starvation, namely). Between 1961-65, policies of incentive farming were introduced. Also from 1961-65, power struggle between left and right. In 1961, Lin Biao (marshall in PLA [People's Liberation Army] published a book that gathers together Mao's thoughts and sayings since 1920. This is known as the "Little Red Book". In the army, every soldier had to have the book, and discuss it daily. PLA were revered as the heroes of China. It was therefore natural for them to be shown as the example to follow and imitate. Schools and universities: red book became part of the curriculum. Workers (in countryside and in factories) had to stop at break-time and discuss the Red Book.

The Cultural Revolution:

In August 1966, 1 million people gathered at Tiananmen Square with their Red Books, chanting praises of Mao. This was the beginning of the Cultural revolution whose aime it was to fight the "3 olds": 1. Old customs 2. Old thoughts 3. Old habits

The Left had gone on the offensive and had used the young as its vanguard (front line). The young attacked the educational system, teachers, university professors (closed all schools). Soon, there were rival Red Guards and violence. Mao called a meeting of the Central Committee to discuss 'revisionism'. Mao asks Deng and Liu to "think about their mistakes" and retire. 2 months later, however, Red Guards pressured to have both men sent to cadre schools. (Forced to do manual work and taught [reminded] what the Revolution was about.) Liu died in this school in 1973, but Deng survived. Mao retired to the countryside (Hangzhoy) and left matters to the Red Guards. Very soon, things got out of control. He tries to restore order by handing over power to PLA.

In 1971, Lin Biao was asked to undergo "self-criticism". He realized that this was probably the first step before dismissal. He therefore plotted a conspiracy to assassinate Mao. The plot was discovered, and Biao left with his family towards the USSR, but the plane conveniently crashed en route. News of his death was kept quiet unti 1972, by which time he had been labeled a Soviet spy.

What were the reasons behind the Cultural Revolution?

1. Mao reasserting himself 2. Revolution was in danger because of the Right 3. Following the de-Stalinization of 1956, Mao feared a similar type of criticism and wanted to establish himself a power base 4. The Cultural Revolution gave an opportunity to the young to live the revolutionary experience 5. Restore the importance of the peasant, rural worker. During this period, migration from town to country was encouraged.

Consequences of Cultural Revolution

1. Cult of personality established 2. Closing down of schools and universities, firing teachers (effects of this very long-lasting) 3. Loss of expertise 4. General breakdown of law and order 5. Relationship between political discourse and reality suffered 6. The loss of international status

Guerrilla fighting

Conventional fighting is said to be won by:

• Greater reserve of manpower ==> army
• Greater industrial potential ==> economy
• Functional civilian administration ==> government

These factors, however, fail versus unconventional forms of war, for example: guerrilla fighting. Examples:

• Yougoslavs vs. Germany in WW2
• Israelis vs. British
• Algerians vs. France
• Indochinese vs. France
• Vietnamese vs. USA

Resources of guerrilla fighters:

1. Knowledge of terrain 2. Mobility 3. Great physical endurance 4. Discipline and good code of behaviour 5. Refusal to fight on enemy's terms 6. Sympathy and active support of local population 7. Motivation

Type of fighting:

• "small war"
• "war to break the enemy's will to fight"

Main actors:

• Chu The: China
• Giap: Vietnam
• Che guadara: Cuba

Fighting against guerrillas: "counter-insurgency"

• Propaganda: showing the dangers of the enemy: providing local population with incentives to go against the guerrillas. (It will only work if the guerrilla fighters have a weak base)
• Fight with increased numbers. (Hard to do: not unlimited resources, don't know resources of guerrillas either) It was calculated that the Americans would have needed 1 million soldiers in Vietnam.
• Treating all civilians as potential guerrilla fighters.

1. This would work only under special circumstances, when the occupying force does not care what civilians think of them, for example, the Yougoslavs or French against the Germans. 2. When the objective is to gain sympathy and support of civilians, it is not a good idea, for example, in Vietnam, and Batista in Cuba.

• Massive military retaliation. Can be counterproductive is it may increase sympathy for rebels (proves unfairness of the war).

Where do guerrillas fail?

• Internal division. Allowing a divide and rule tactic, for example, racial division, religious division (Ireland).
• Lack of experience, incapable of rallying support, for example, Iran (1960's-70's).
• Geographical difficulties preventing unity.
• Small numbers, lack of equipment.
• Inability to manage the last phase: facing the enemy (sometimes not necessary, however, as in Vietnam and Cuba).

The Cold War

The beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-48

In May 1945, American troops entered Berlin from the West, as Russian troops moved in from the east. They met and celebrated victory together. Three years later, these former allies were arguing over Berlin and war between them seemed a real possibility.

Yalta February 1945

In February 1945, it was clear that Germany was losing the European war, so the Allied leaders met at Yalta in Ukraine to plan what would happen to Europe after Germany's defeat. The conference went well: despite their differences, the Big Three (Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill) agreed on some important matters.

• Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan once Germany had surrendered
• Germany would be divided up into four zones, and Berlin also
• The Big three agreed to hunt down and punish war criminals responsible for the genocide
• They agreed that as countries were liberated from occupation by Germany, they should be allowed to hold free elections to choose the government they wanted
• The Big Three agreed to join the UNO which would aim to keep peace after the war
• The Soviet Union had suffered terribly in the war. An estimated 20 million Russians had died, and therefore Stalin was concerned about the future security of the USSR. The Big Three agreed that eastern Europe should be seen as a 'Soviet sphere of influence'
• The only real disagreement was about Poland. Stalin wanted the border of the USSR to move westward into Poland. Stalin argued that Poland, in turn, could move into Germany. Churchill did not approve of Stalin's plans for Poland, but he also knew that there was not very much he could do about it because Stalin's red army was in total control of both Poland and eastern Germany. Roosevelt was also unhappy, but was persuaded by Churchill to accept it, as long as the USSR agreed not to interfere in Greece, where the British were attempting to prevent the Communists from taking over. Stalin accepted, and it seemed that although they could not agree on everything, the Big Three could still negotiate and do business with each other.

Potsdam July-August 1945

Three months after the Yalta Conference, Allied troops reached Berlin. Hitler committed suicide, Germany surrendered: the war in Europe was won. A second conference of the Allied leaders was arranged for July 1945 in the Berlin suburb of Potsdam. However, in the five months since Yalta, a number of changes had taken place which would greatly affect relationships with the leaders. Stalin's armies were occupying most of eastern Europe. Soviet troops had liberated country after country in eastern Europe, but instead of withdrawing his troops, Stalin had left them there. By July, Stalin effectively controlled the Baltic states, Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania. Refugees were fleeing these countries, fearing a communist takeover. Stalin had set up a Communist government in Poland, ignoring the wishes of the majority of Poles. Britain and USA protested but Stalin defended his action by saying that Britain or the USA did not have a border with Poland, and that he had not intervened in Greece, where Britain had set up an anti-communist government there.

America had a new president. On 12 April 1945, President Roosevelt had died. He was replaced by his Vice President, Harry Truman. Truman was a very different man from Roosevelt: he was much more anti-communist than Roosevelt, and very suspicious of Stalin. The Allies had tested an atom bomb on 16 July at a desert site in the USA. At the start of the Potsdam Conference, Truman informed Stalin about it.

Disagreements at Potsdam

The conference finally got under way on 17 July. Not surprisingly, it did not go as smoothly as Yalta. In July there was an election in Britain. Churchill was defeated, and so halfway through the conference, he was replaced by a new Prime minister, Clement Attlee. In the absence of Churchill, the conference was dominated by rivalry between Stalin and Truman, both suspicious of each other. A number of issues arose on which neither side seemed able to appreciate the other's point of view.

• They disagreed over what to do about Germany. Stalin wanted to cripple Germany completely, while

Truman did not want to repeat the mistakes of the Treaty of Versailles.

• They disagreed over reparations. 20 million Russians had died, and so Stalin wanted reparations from Germany. Truman was against it, once again on the basis that he did not want to repeat the mistakes of the Treaty of Versailles.
• They disagreed over Soviet Policy in Eastern Europe. At Yalta, Stalin had won agreement from the Allies that he could set up pro-Soviet governments in eastern Europe. He said that if the Slavs were united, no-one would move a finger against them. Truman became very unhappy about Russian intentions, an dsoon adopted a 'get tough' attitude towards Stalin.

The Iron Curtain

The Potsdam Conference ended without complete agreement on these issues. Over the next nine months, Stalin achieved the domination of Eastern Europe that he was after. By 1946, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania all had Communist governments which owed their loyalty to Stalin. Churchill described the border between Soviet-controlled countries and the West as an iron curtain. The name stuck.

Stalin tightens his control

With communist governments established throughout eastern Europe, Stalin gradually tightened his control in each country. The secret police imprisoned anyone who opposed Communist rule, or might oppose it at a later date. In October 1947, Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) to co-ordinate the work of the Communist parties of Eastern Europe. Cominform regularly brought the leaders of each Communist party to Moscow to be briefed by Stalin and his ministers. This also allowed Stalin to keep a close eye on them. He spotted independent-minded leaders and replaced them with people who were completely loyal to him. The only communist leader who escaped this close control was Tito in Yugoslavia. He resented being controlled by Cominform and left it in 1948.

The Cold War

It was clear by 1946 that the wartime friendship between the Allies had broken down. It had to be replaced by suspicion and accusation. The distrust was soon so great that the leaders were talking in public about the threat of war between the two countries. Instead of running down arms expenditure after the war, as you would expect them to, the two sides actually increased their stock of weapons. Each side took every opportunity to denounce the policies or the plans of the other. A propaganda war developed. In this atmosphere of tension and recrimination people began to talk about a Cold War. This Cold War was going to last for 30 years and would dominate relations between the countries for much of that time.

Why was the USA so worried about Communism?

Roosevelt and Stalin had gotten on surprisingly well as individuals, but the wartime alliance of the USSR and the USA had always been an unlikely friendship. It was really only the war that held their alliance together. The USA and the USSR had little in common as countries and their leaders had different ideas and beliefs. Before the war, they had distrusted each other very greatly. The USA had been appalled by Stalin signing a non-aggression pact with Hitler in 1939. Even during the war, the Americans had not really supported Stalin's effort as he wished. They had not sent troops to help him hold back Hitler in Russia. The differing beliefs of the USA and the USSR go some way to explaining why the Cold War developed, but not all the way. After all, they had had these different beliefs in the 1920's and the 1930's and they had not entered into a Cold War. However, there were some important differences between the 1930's and the 1940's. The USA and the USSR had emerged from the war as two superpowers. In the 1930's, other countries such as Britain and France had been as important in international affairs. However, the war had finally demoted Britain and France to a second division. They were not big enough, rich enough, or strong enough to exercise international leadership. Only the USA and the USSR were able to do this. The USA was well aware that a responsibility was attached to being a superpower. In the 1930's, the USA had followed isolationism closely. The Americans might have disapproved of Soviet Communism, but they tried not to get involved. However, by the 1940's, the USA had learned a lesson. They did not want to make the mistakes they had before the Second World War. Roosevelt had set the Americans firmly against isolationism. In March 1945, he said to the American Congress that America would have to take the responsibility for world collaboration or would have to bear the responsibility for another world conflict. There would be no more appeasement of dictators. From now on, every communist action would meet an American reaction.

The Reaction of the West

The Western powers were alarmed by Stalin's takeover of eastern Europe. Roosevelt, Churchill, and their successors had accepted that Russian security needed friendly governments in eastern Europe. They had agreed that eastern Europe would be a Soviet 'sphere of influence' and that Stalin would heavily influence this region. However, they had not expected such complete Communist domination. They felt it should have been possible to have governments in eastern Europe which were both democratic and friendly to the USSR. Stalin saw his policy in eastern Europe as making himself secure, but Truman could only see the spread of communism. By 1948, Czechoslovakia and Greece were the only eastern European countries not controlled by Communist governments. It seemed to the Americans that not only Czechoslovakia and Greece, but even Italy and France were vulnerable to Communist takeover. Events in two of these countries were to have a decisive effect on America's policy towards Europe.

Greece

When the Germans retreated from Greece in 1944, there were two rival groups, the monarchists and the communists. Both had been involved in resistance against the Nazis. The communists wanted Greece to be a soviet republic. The monarchists wanted the return of the kind in Greece. Churchill sent troops to Greece in 1945 supposedly to help restore order and supervise free elections. In fact the British supported the monarchists and the king was restored to power. In 1946, the USSR protested to the UN that British troops were a threat to peace in Greece. The United Nations took no action, and so the communists tried to take control of Greece by force. A civil war quickly developed. The British could not afford the cost of such a war, and announced on 24 February 1947 that they were withdrawing their troops. Truman stepped in. Paid for by the Americans, some British troops stayed in Greece. They tried to prop up the king's government. By 1950, the royalists were in control of Greece, although they were a very weak government, always in crisis.

The Truman Doctrine

This American intervention marked a new era in America's attitude to world politics, which became known as the 'Truman Doctrine'. Under the Truman Doctrine, America was prepared to send money, equipment and advice to any country which was, in American view, threatened by a Communist takeover. Truman accepted that eastern Europe was now communist. His aim was to stop Communism from spreading any further. This became known as Containment. Others thought containment should mean something firmer. They said that it must be made clear to the Soviet Union that expansion beyond a given limit would be met with military force.

Marhsall Aid

Truman believed that Communism succeeded when people faced poverty and hardship. He sent the American General George Marshall to assess the economic state of Europe. What he found was a ruined economy. The countries of Europe owed $11.5 billion to the USA. There were extreme shortages of all goods. Most countries were still rationing bread. There was such a coal shortage in the hard winter of 1947 that in Britain, all electricity was turned off for a period each day. Churchill described Europe as 'a rubble heap, a breeding ground of hate'. Marhsall suggested that about $17 billio9n would be needed to rebuild Europe's prosperity. Our policy, he said, is directed against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. In December 1947, Truman put his plan to Congress. For a short time, the American Congress refused to grant this money. Many Americans were becoming concerned by Truman's involvement in foreign affairs. Besides, $17 billion was a lot of money. Their attitude changed when the Communists took over the government in Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia had been ruled by a coalition government which, although it included Communists, had been trying to pursue policies independent from Moscow. The Communists came down hard in March 1948. Anti Soviet leaders were purged. One pro-American minister, Jan Masaryk, was found dead below his open window. The Communists said he'd jumped, but the Americans suspected he'd been pushed. Immediately, Congress accepted Marshall's plan, and made $17 billion available over a period of four years. On the one hand, it was an extremely generous act by the American people. On the other hand, Marshall Aid was also motivated by American self-interest. They wanted to create new markets for American good. The Americans remembered the disastrous effects of the Depression of the 1930's, and Truman wanted to do all he could to prevent another worldwide slump. Stalin viewed Marshall Aid with suspicion. After expressing some initial interest, he refused to have anything more to do with it. He also forbade any of the eastern European states to apply for Marshall Aid. Stalin's view was that the anti-communist aims behind the Marshall Plan would weaken his hold on eastern Europe. He also felt that America was trying to dominate as many states as possible by making them dependent on dollars.

The non-alignment movement

• Born out of newly-created nations-states that had undergone de-colonialisation and did not want to enter either the capitalist or the communist camps.

Common features: o Will to stay independent from Cold War struggle o To search economic prosperity independently o Claim to seek peace, stay out of Cold War

1955: Bandung conference (Indonesia)

• 29 African/Asian countries attend it
• Promote economic and social well-being for impoverished states
• Promote cooperation between poorer states and strength through unity
• Promote world peace
• Promote national liberation (de-colonisation)
• Promote independance from 2 blocs
• Forge a new identity for oppressed people

Main founding members:

Tito (Yugoslavia) Nehru (India) Sukarno (Indonesia) Nasser (Egypt) Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam) Chou en Lai (China) Nkrumah (Ghana)

Reasons the non-alignment movement did not succeed :

• Members were not truly non-aligned.
• Differences between China and USSR meant a new struggle was born to grab the countries that were for offer. China and USSR fought to take third world countries.
• Political independence was impossible when there was economic dependance.
• Other rival organizations: OAU (African unity), Arab unity.
• Disagreements between China and India.
• Fall from power of Nasser, Ben Bella (National Liberation Front of Nigeria).
• UN came to represent these 'impoverished states'.
• Lack of unity.

Jérôme Adam Revision Notes European History High