Freddy - The causes of war

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The Three Images of War

Kenneth Waltz

War as the result of Human Nature:

States that war is the outcome of the very nature of human beings.

    • Supported by Confucius to present day behavioral scientists.

Implication: to prevent war one must change human nature!

    • Optimists: human nature can be modified to make war less likely
    • Pessimists: Human nature cannot be changed and war is inevitable.

Things that could be done to Change Human Nature:

    • Offer alternatives to war i.e.: demanding physical activities.
    • Education: humans to be educated with a love of peace and hatred of war (there are human societies where war is unknown)
    • Cultural exchanges (better understanding btw peoples)
    • Screen Potential leaders: ensure that they are not predisposed towards violence.

Criticisms:

    • Human nature is infinitely variable.
    • Far too general for any practical use.
    • If war is caused by human nature then so is peace.


War As the Result of the Internal Structure of States:

Argues that wars are caused by ‘bad states’ / i.e.: an unpopular government engages in a war against another state in an attempt to promote internal unity.

What is a ‘bad state’? In recent past bad = autocratic.

More difficult to define what constitutes a ‘good state’

    1. Marxists define it in economic terms. Good state is one in which there is a fair distribution of wealth.
    2. USA and allies define it in political terms based on multi-party democracy, sovereignty of people, …
    3. Fundamentalists Islam defines it in terms of a states which bases itself upon the word of God.

Therefore, this theory has not much practical value when attempting to eliminate war.

War as the result of the Structure of the State System:

Argues that war is the result of the nature of relations between states, i.e.: Gov. of a state will represent its own interests and in the event of a serious clash in interests there will be war.

Implications:

    • Groupings of states in an attempt to promote the wellbeing of all / establishment of an alliance which would deter attack on an individual state / disarmament programs (i.e.: NATO, Non-Proliferation treaty)
    • Transfer of authority from national Gov. to regional or global organizations (i.e.: EC, UN)
    • World Government!

Criticisms:

    • Alliances in the past arguably have been as much responsible for the outbreak of war as they have been useful in preventing it.
    • It does not address the most common form of warfare since 1945: civil war.

The Origins of the First World War

1. German Responsibility:

Fischer’s View: (German Historian)

    • Germany responsible for war b/c of its aggressive pursuit of its weltpolitik.
    • Germany willed the war in order to realize expansionist ambitions and to resole an acute domestic crisis.
    • Fear of ‘encirclement’ after the Triple Entente and Russian army reforms meant that ‘a moment so favorable froma military point of view might never occur again’.
    • Germany put pressure on A-H to retaliate against Serbia (even if it meant General war) ß ‘blank cheque’

Criticism of Fischer:

    • German policy before 1914 seems contradictory and lacking in clear aims.
    • No evidence that German leader help expansionist aims before the ‘September Programme’ (which Fischer uses to explain the German desire for war)
    • Places too much importance on the domestic crisis in the decision to launch a war in 1914 Bulow and Hollweg dismissed war as a solution to the socialist problem.

More Correct View:

    • Distinguish btw Germany’s contribution to the growth in international tensions from 1900-13 w/ her role during the July crisis itselft.
    • All Gov. responsible for tension until 1914 but not equally responsible for the fatal turn of events — for which Germany was culpable.


2. The Responsibility of Other Powers:

Austro-Hungary:

    • Contributed to conflict in Balkans by lengthy delays in responding to Sarajevo. (i.e.: the ultimatum to Serbia was not delivered until almost a month after Sarajevo.)
    • Decleration of war on Serbia came only 5 days after ultimatum
    • Refused to halt military operations (as Kaiser suggested) even though talks with Russia were scheduled for July 30.

Russia:

    • Clear that Russia was the expansionist force in the Blakans.
    • Unable (unwilling?) to restrain/control Slaw nationalism even though it was a force endangering peace/stability in Europe.
    • Balkan Wars might have been a ‘war by proxy’ for Russia.
    • Promise of support to Serbia (influenced decision to reject the ultimatum)

France: (not a crucial role)

    • Promised French support to Russia (but this was more the work of French ambassador in Russia rather then official policy from Paris)
    • Hopes of recovering Alsace-Lorraine was worth fighting for but not sufficient for wanting war.

Britain: (not a crucial role)

    • Underestimated gravity of crisis in late July.
    • Maybe a clearer statement of British intent to support France would have restrained Berlin.
    • Naval talks with Russia convinced the German Chancellor that the ‘ring of encirclement’ was complete.


  1. The Balkans


    • Tension between Russia and A-H. (A-H’s prestige depended on its influence in the Balkans)
    • Pan-slavism / nationalism
    • Do NOT in themselves explain how an Austro-Serb dispute excalated into a general European war.


  1. Alliances, International Anarchy, and Armaments:


The system of alliances helps explain why so many powers became involved in the war of 1914.

    • After her isolation at the Algeciras conference, Germany realised that A-H was virtually her only ally and the alliance w/ A-H took on a new importance. (blank-cheque of 1914 transformed a defensive alliance into an offensive one)
    • Similarly France gave a ‘blank cheque’ (1912) to Russia turning a defensive alliance into an offensive one.

The importance of the alliance systems was not its existence but rather that their defensive nature had been altered.

    • Alliance system reduced flexibility of responses in the event of a crisis (i.e.: German response to Franco-Russian alliance was the Schlieffen Plan, therefore the answer to a Russian threat was to invade France!)
    • However in some respects the alliance system was in some disarray in early 1914 (i.e.: Britain disanchanted w/ agreement w/ Russia over Persia // Britain still did not support France by July 1914)


Yet the system of alliances had been successful before at preventing conflicts and maintaining an aspect of a balance of power. Why did war break out in 1914? One answer is that Germany was intent on war in 1914 (and thus rejected most proposals for mediation in 1914). Germany could not tolerate a diplomatic defeat for her ally.

The Arms Race can be both a cause and an effect of international tension.

    • Determination of Germany to become a naval power threatened Britain.
    • Russian army reforms (due to be completed by 1917) led to a point of view of the German high command that a preventive war against Russia in 1914 made sense.
    • Maybe the arms race contributed to the feeling that war could not be postponed indefinitely.
    • Gov. in the leading states had warlike attitudes (i.e.: in Germany the General Staff had enormous influence.)
    • However there was a current of anti-militarism in both France and Germany (i.e.: in the socialist movements)


  1. Capitalism, Imperialism and Nationalism

Capitalism:

Arguments For:

  1. Simple belief that industrialists had an interest in provoking war
  2. Capitalist economic pressures were the driving force behind imperialist rivalries.
  3. Anglo German Trade Rivalry

Arguments Against:

    • Armaments manufacturers had markets overseas which might be lost in wartime.
    • Financiers needed stability.
    • Anglo-German commercial links were growing closed from 1904-1914.

Imperialism:

    • Lenin said that the war was an ‘imperialist war’ b/c it sought a re-division of colonial territories.
    • Germany had a prime interest in acquiring the colonies of other states.
    • German Weltpolitik was a challenge to British/French Empires.

Yet, agreements were being made on colonial issues prior to the war.

    • Psychological consequences of a generation of imperialism: Exacerbating mutual suspicion and hostility (contributed to the mood of 1914)
    • Contributed to ‘nationalist revival’


Conclusion:

Four central factors:

    • Legacy of Weltpolitik: failed by 1914 / harmed Germany’s relations with other powers / meagre achievements contrasted with its high expectations / increased German feeling of insecurity.
    • Growth of Russian power: economic expansion, pop. growth, army reforms, and strategic railways (close to German borders) alarmed Germany.
    • Disruptive effect of nationalism: threatened A-H in terms of her ability to act as a great power & disintegration.
    • Inadequacy of Germany policy during the July crisis: failure to devise diplomatic alternatives in case the Triple Entente held and France and Britain supported Russia.

Four subsidiary factors:

    • The decline of the ‘Concert of Europe’: statesmen unwilling to behave with restraint for the sake of ‘Europe’ as a whole.
    • The Arms Race: increased expectations of war / led Germany to believe she had a better chance of winning in 1914 rather then later.
    • The legacy of imperial rivalries: increased animosities among the great powers (affecting public opinion, press, and Gov.)
    • The influence of domestic tensions: encouraged ruling circles to consider war as a relief from such tensions.

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The Causes of the First World War

The Profound Causes

  1. War was not seen as morally wrong
  2. Nationalism was high in the 19th century


    • Nations which had not obtained independence by 1900 were determined to do so.
    • Resulted in fierce price (i.e.: Deutschland uber alles)
  1. Imperial rivalries: clashes often produced a ‘war fever’ but there is little correlation between imperial rivals and WWI rivals. These rivalries did contribute to the build-up of tension.
  2. Economic rivalry: search for new markets by giant corporations led to intense rivalry.
  3. System of Alliances: international relations became rigid w/ the development of alliances à deterioration of international relations.
  4. Secret Diplomacy:


    • Encouraged the making of aggressive agreements.
    • Generated a climate of suspicion.
  1. Arms Race:


    • Fueled national sentiment.
    • Huge sums devoted to weaponry could only be justified if these weapons were to be used.
    • May have increase the influence of the Armament industries upon Gov. policy.
  1. Vigorous Foreign policy of Germany: after resignation of Bismarck.
  2. Franco-Prussian War: loss of Alsace-Lorraine for France, poisoned relations btw the two states.
  3. The Eastern Question: series of crises kept the are on the boil.


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Events Leading to World War I

‘No war is inevitable until it breaks out’

  1. March 1890: Bismarck resigned, the new Kaiser seeks a more active Weltpolitik à the blunders of both the new Kaiser and the Chancellors alienated other powers and increasingly gave influence to army leaders in Germany
  2. March 1980: German refusal to renew the Reinsurance Treaty w/ Russia à made Russia suspicious of German intentions (led to closed relations btw France and Russia à ‘war on two fronts’)
  3. December 1893: France and Russia sign a military convention pledging to helped each other in the event of a German attack.
  4. December 1895: failure of Jameson raid and German intervention congratulating the Boer on dealing with the attack ‘without appealing to the help of friendly powers.’ ß infuriated British whilst gaining nothing for Germany.
  5. November 1897: Germany seized control of Kiao-Chow (Chinese port), Britain and Russia do likewise à imperial rivalries in region inflamed à eventually lead to the Boxer Rebellion (1902)
  6. March 1898: Germany introduces the navy Code — plan to increase the size of the nave — seen by British as threatening. Seen as an immediate threat with the launching of the dreadnoughts in 1906.
  7. 1898: Fashoda Incident: Increased tension in both countries.
  8. 1899-1902: Boer War: British losses (and disillusionment at easy victory) meant Britain began to seek allies to help protect her widespread empire.
  9. January 1902: British-Japanese alliance
  10. February 1904: Russo-Japanese war (Germany tried to obtain an alliance with Russia since Britain was allied to Japan but Russians refused as they saw it would not help them against Japan and would instead anger France)
  11. April 1904: Anglo-French Entente (Entente Cordiale) settled colonial disputes à seen in Germany as a clear British alignment with France (and therefore Russia) against the Triple Alliance of Germany, A-H, and Italy (1882)
  12. March 1905: Germany assures Moroccan Sultan of his independence (attempt to challenge the Anglo-French agreement concerning the region)
  13. January 1906: Algeciras Conference: called by Kaiser / Anglo-French agreement over North Africa recognized à German humiliation à Germany would be less likely to seek compromise through fear of being seen as weak.
  14. August 1907: Russia and Britain settle their differences over Persia and Afghanistan (seen as a Triple Entente by Germany) à fear of encirclement begin to motivate German policy.
  15. 1908: Revolt in the Ottoman Empire: A-H annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina / obtains Russian agreement by promising to support the ending of travel restrictions on Russian warships between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean / A-H ignores the agreement / Germany mobilizes forces in support of A-H / Russian protest end. à increased tension in the Balkans
  16. April 1911: Italy seized control of Tripoli (Libya)
  17. April 1911: Moroccan Sultan calls for French help against rebellion / French intervene / Germany protests and sends a warship to Agadir à convinces British that Germany wanted a naval base in west Africe / brings to power in France the anti-Germany premier Poincaré (1912) / intensifies naval arms race.
  18. 1912: First Balkan War: Balkan states drive the Turks out of the Balkans.
  19. 1913: Second Balkan War: Balkan states quarrel amongst themselves.

    20. à The 2 wars inflame national sentiment in the Balkans / Alarm A-H and convince her to act against Balkan nationalism and in particular Serbia which would almost certainly bring her into conflict with Russia.

  20. June 1914 (28th): Archduke Francis-Ferdinand assassinated.


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The Outbreak Of War

June 28th 1914: Heir to A-H throne assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia by a young Bosnian student (supplied in weapons and training by the Black Hand — a secret Serbian society) à leads A-H to assume Serbian guilt.

    • Presented A-H with an opportunity to crush Serbia.


July 5th: German Emperor and Chancellor give A-H a ‘blank cheque’.

    • Note: Kaiser leaves for a cruise in Baltic until 27th.

July 23rd: Ultimatum sent to Serbia (delayed to avoid Serbians receiving it while French President in visit to Russia)

    • Demanded full investigation into the assassination.
    • Terms criticized by France, Britain, and Russia.

July 24-28th: British Foreign secretary contacts on 4 occasions the Germans to propose some form of arbitration. (Germany refused offers and delayed transmitting offers to A-H)

July 27th: Kaiser returns and proposes the Halt in Belgrad by which A-H would seize the capital Belgrade until Serbia fulfilled the terms of the ultimatum (but not seize the whole country)

July 28th: A-H declaration of War on Serbia: Kaiser’s proposal has come too late (his own ministers had been encouraging declaration of war and concealing info. from him.)

July 29/30th: German Chancellor contacts Britain to propose British neutrality / Britain refuses

July 30th: Czar Nicholas II orders Russian mobilization to begin.

July 31st: Full German mobilization is ordered.

August 1st: British propose to ensure French neutrality

à Kaiser orders the halt of any Western advance à German army commander protests b/c of the Schlieffen Plan

à Germany asks Russia to halt mobilization / Russia refuses à Germany declares war on Russia

à France orders mobilization / Germany asks France to halt her mobilization and guarantee neutrality.

August 3rd: Germany declares war on France who refused demands.

August 4th: Britain declares war on Germany when German troops invade Belgium (part of Schlieffen Plan)

 

The Nature of Warfare 1914-1918

(The Practice of War)

WWI changed popular conceptions of warfare. Before 1914 war had been regarded as an acceptable tool of diplomacy. à at first war was greeted with scenes of great enthusiasm in all countries concerned.

Main Characteristics:

    1. The Industrial Revolution meant that:
    <DIR> <DIR>
    1. Weapons could be manufactured on a vast scale.
    2. The destructive power of weaponry increased greatly.
    3. The concentration of population in urban centers meant easy mobilization à field armies of a scale never seen before.

    </DIR> </DIR>

    1. The influence of nationalism: war was seen as between peoples à difficult to think in terms of a negotiated end, instead sought total defeat of the enemy.
    2. Elements of Total War:
    <DIR> <DIR>
    1. The entire population became involved, conscription was introduced.
    2. Industry was geared to war production / Women were used.
    3. The new weapons had the range and destructive power to inflict casualties on the civilian population.

    </DIR> </DIR>

    1. Economic Warfare: destroying the enemies’ capacity to supply the huge armies (i.e.: through blockading of ports, unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany)
    2. Use of Propaganda: resulted from the development of mass media and its roles were:
    <DIR> <DIR>
    1. Maintain enthusiasm for the war.
    2. Pressure those who did not support the war.
    3. Convince world opinion of the justness of one’s cause.
    4. Weaken enemy morale.

    </DIR> </DIR>

    1. Loss of individual freedom: i.e.: through conscription, rationing of food, gearing of industries, censorship of the press (Germany)
    2. Casualties were appallingly high: i.e.: casualties for Verdun in 1916 were greater then entire losses of Britain and Commonwealth in the whole of WWII.
    3. Fighting tended to be static (i.e.: trench warfare)
    4. Conditions were appalling.
    5. War took a major step towards total war.

B/c of the escalation of the war, both sides could justify nothing less then total victory and the war was portrayed as a struggle btw democracy and autocracy. (Allies made use of this after the collapse of Russia in 1917)

The Effects of the First World War

Domestic Effects:

  1. Changes in population structure:
    1. Most of those killed were of ages 18-38.
    2. Fall in the birth rate 1914-1918.
    3. The ‘baby boom’ that followed the war meant huge demand for school places.
    4. Manpower shortage during 1930s.
  1. Changes in society:
    1. Social barriers undermined b/c of the emphasis on national unity during the war years.
    2. Status of women enhanced.
  1. Increased role of Governments:
    1. Increased intervention in areas of health and education.
    2. Gov. had taken over areas of the private sector during the war à some of these remained under Gov. control.
  1. Belief in the need for economic self-sufficiency:
    1. Normal trade was disrupted.
    2. Countries had tried during the war to develop alternative home supplies.
    3. Promoted the idea of autarky
  1. Major changes in the internal economies of states: European powers entered the war as creditor nations but ended the war as debtor nations.

    2. International Effects:

  2. Nationalism reached its highest point (i.e.: through treaties that took into account the ‘right of self determination’ of Woodrow Wilson. (yet there were many exceptions)
  3. Spreading of democratic ideals: new states that emerged from war initially dedicated to democracy (in practice not always the case)
  4. Creation of the world’s first communist state (single most important consequence?)
  5. Economic life and world trade dislocated: prewar trading patterns had changed during the war and were never restored.
  6. Major post war programmes began with ‘re’: reconstruction, reparations, repayment, recovery, restoration…indication of the desire to turn back the clock rather then rebuild with new thinking and initiative.
  7. Left a tangle of war debts and reparation payments: all the victorious Allies (except US)heavily in debt à countries like France did not take active measures and waited for reparation to start flowing.
  8. Shift away from Europe as the center of the world (this trend was evident by the end of WWII)
  9. Development in the area of international organizations: to prevent the horrors of war (i.e.: League of Nations, ILO)


 

The Causes of the Second World War

The Profound Causes

  1. The Versailles Settlement:
    1. It was an uneasy compromise.
    2. Redrawn boundaries of Europe did not satisfy all.
    3. Drew frontiers avoiding completely the minority problem.
    4. The whole idea of the reparations ‘contained the seeds of future disputes’.
  1. Isolation of both the USA and USSR:
    1. US refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations.
    2. USSR was treated like the defeated Central Powers (with the creation of the Cordon Sanitaire)
    3. Neither power had an interest in maintaining the peace settlement of 1919-20.
  1. Nationalism:

    2. a) New states determined by the concept of ‘self-determination of peoples’ (i.e.: Poland) proved aggressive and expansionary.

  2. Reorganization of Europe did not produce more democratic states:
    1. Dictatorships in Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Italy, Germany.
    2. Only Czechoslovakia established a stable democracy.
  1. The World Depression:
    1. Led to the rise of extremists to power. (i.e.: Rise of the Nazi party)
    2. Led Gov. to focus on short-term nationalistic measures due to economic depression (international co-operation suffered)
  1. The belief that war was a legitimate means of implementing national policy continued. (i.e.: Mussolini and Hitler were ‘Social Darwinists’. They opposed org. like the League of Nations b/c of association w/ Versailles and b/c they ‘protect the weak’.)
  2. Weakness of the western democracies of Britain and France:
    1. French and British failure to support the League of Nations
    2. The appeasement policies.
    3. Led other countries to see dictatorship as a stronger and more effective from of government / to come to terms with the dictators in the hope of securing neutral status.
  1. Too much of the ‘old war order’ survived: a second war was needed to complete the transfer of values of the 19th century to those of the 20th.

The Events Leading to the Outbreak of War in September 1939

1919-1929: ‘aftermath’ of WWI

  1. No attempt by defeated powers to challenge the 1919-20 settlement.
  2. Late 20s marked by economic recovery. (i.e.: reparation payments renegotiated —Dawes (1924) and Young Plans (1929)- and US finance aided German recovery.)
  3. Germany was reintegrated into the international system. (i.e.: joined League of Nations in 1926 / Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 renouncing the use of war)
  4. League of Nations gained in prestige (meeting of the League were taken seriously)


Stability of this post-war period destroyed 1929-1939 by two major events:

  1. The Great Depression: a disaster for the settlement of 1919-20:
    1. It saw the rapid spread of ‘economic nationalism’ à poisoning of international co-operation and produced political upheavals.
    2. Increased the isolationism of the USA b/c of the war debt issue.
    3. Western democracies did little rearmament (of advantage to Hitler whose situation was different from the democracies)
    4. Led to serious class conflict à raised fear of revolution and fear of any war that would bring with it revolution à led to appeasement policies in order to avoid a conflict.
    5. Reparations Ended.


  1. The Coming to power of Hitler:
  1. Germany would not make further reparations payments (June 1933)
  2. Withdrew Germany from the League of Nations (October 1933)
  3. Hitler denounced the disarmament clause of Versailles and introduced conscription and began building an airforce (March 1935)
  4. Anglo-German Naval Treaty: (June 1935) gave Germany the right to increase the size of her naval forces.

The settlement of 1919 was destroyed. This was allowed b/c of:

    • The hatred of war in western democracies (no preventive action)
    • The actions of Mussolini which focussed attention elsewhere and dealt the death-blow to the LoN (invasion of Abyssinia)


The build-up to war during the period 1936-1939:

Reoccupation of the Rhineland, March 1936:

    • Feb. 12th 1936: Hitler informs his Commander-in-Chief that he wants to send troops into the demilitarized Rhineland.
    • March 3rd: Mussolini tells the Germans he has no objections.
    • March 7th: German troops enter the Rhineland.
    • March 8th: French denounce action but no military action is taken.

Why did Hitler take this action?

  1. International circumstances in his favor:


    • France experiencing internal problems
    • British concern over Mussolini’s measures meant Britain was not in a position to intervene militarily.
    • Italy was seeking better relations with Germany.
  1. Hitler needed a spectacular success in foreign policy to turn aside growing criticism of his policies inside Germany.
  2. Hitler’s character and Fascism required action.

What were the effects of the reoccupation?

Immediate:

    1. Austria begins to seek better relations w/ Germany (not confident concerning French or British help in the event of a conflict)
    2. Marked the ended of the ‘Stresa Front’ (anti-German alliance of Britain, France, and Italy)

Long Term:

    1. Initiative passed to Hitler and Germany’s position was strengthened.
    2. Allowed the construction of the Siegfried Line which meant Britain and France could no longer intervene militarily w/out major conflict.
    3. Hitler was able to plan a more aggressive policy in the East b/c there was little danger of French or British action against him.
    4. Encouraged Hitler, and helped convince others of the strength of the fascist system and the weakness of democracies.


Hitler works to improve Germany’s diplomatic position:

    • October 1936: agreements signed btw Italy and Germany (‘axis powers’)/ both agree to support Franco.
    • November 1937: Germany and Japan sign an anti-Comintern pact à combined w/ the deterioration of Japanese relations with the Western democracies after its invasion of Manchuria this brought Japan increasingly into the German camp.
    • Non-intervention agreement signed with Austria.
    • Hitler begins a campaign of anti-communist speeches to convince Europe he was her best defense against USSR threat.
    • Hitler gave diplomatic assurances to Poland that Germany had no design upon her territory.
    • November 1937: Italy signed the anti-Comintern pact.


The Hossbach Memorandum, November 5th 1937:

    • Memorandum for a meeting of top ranking German leaders.
    • Hitler stated that Germany must expand her territory b/c of a growing population and inadequate resources.
    • This was to be achieved through war.
    • War must come soon with the German advantage of having begun armament sooner then Western democracies.
    • The opportunity to start a war would occur if:
      • France had extreme internal difficulties (then Germany would attack Czechoslovakia)
      • France became involved in a war (Germany must then deal w/ both Czechoslovakia and Austria, esp. if Britain is involved in a conflict w/ Italy)


Does the Hossbach Memorandum prove that Hitler planned war?

For:

    • Hitler talks as if war was inevitable in the meeting
    • He talks of taking advantage of British or French weaknesses
    • Talks specifically of dealing w/ Austria and Czechoslovakia
    • Says that it is his political will

Against:

    • Many of those present were not Nazis (why reveal his thoughts to such a group?)
    • Hitler might only be pleasing the military
    • Goering was meeting opposition in the armament programme. Was this set up to remove opposition?
    • Hitler showed no interest in Hossbach’s minutes (was it really his political testament?)
    • The situation he describes did not develop.

It is doubtful if Hitler had a ‘timetable’ for his aggression, he was encouraged though by international developments:

    1. Internal division weakened France.
    2. Britain was unwilling to give France guarantees.
    3. Stalin had purged the Soviet army
    4. The League of Nations and the concept of collective security was weakening.


The Anschluss (union) with Austria (March 1938):

January 1938: Hitler strengthened his position by removing non-Nazis from key positions.

Feb 12th 1938: Hitler threatened the Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg, in order for him to remove anti-Nazi measures and allow Austrian Nazis to enter the government.

March 9th 1938: Schuschnigg declares that he will hold a referendum concerning Hitler’s measures.

March 11th 1938: Schuschnigg orders the Austrian army not to fire on Austrian troops / Hitler hears that Mussolini would not oppose a German move into Austria.

March 12th 1938: German Troops enter Austrian

March 13th 1938: Hitler annexes Austria

The Result of the Anschluss:

  1. Balance of Power now in Germany’s favour.


    • Ideally placed to dominate Balkans.
    • Shared a common frontier w/ Italian ally.
    • Czechoslovakia had her defenses outflanked.
    • 100,000 troops added to German army
  1. Gained in Economic Strength:


    • Control of Austrian steel resources.
    • Control of Austrian gold and foreign currency.
  1. France dislike the Union but could not act alone.
  2. Britain disliked Hitler’s methods but the feeling was that the original refusal to allow it had been a denial of the right of self-determination.


Germany takes over the Sudetenland, Sept./Oct. 1938:

March 1938: Hitler meets with Sudeten Nazi leader (Konrad Henlein) and tells him to make unacceptable demands for autonomy so Hitler could intervene.

April 1938: British and French (Czech allies) urge .CZ to make maximum number of concessions.

May 20th 1938: .CZ President orders partial mobilization / France warns Hitler against any invasion.

May 30th 1938: Hitler orders generals to prepare for an invasion of .CZ by September if issue had not been resolved.

Sept 7th 1938: Article in the ‘Times’ suggesting .CZ should hand over Sudetenland to Germany

Sept 12th 1938: In a speech at a party rally Hitler attacks the Czechs.

Sept 13th 1938: Chamberlain (British PM) suggest a meeting w/ Hitler.

Sept 15th 1938: Chamberlain goes to Berchtesgaden / Hitler agrees to wait for a peaceful settlement but orders generals to continue with invasion plans.

Sept 19th 1938: French and British persuade the Czechs to accept the transfer of territory w/ clear German majorities(France w/ threat of withdrawing support)

Sept 22nd 1938: Chamberlain-Hitler meeting at Bad Godesberg: Hitler wants the immediate transfer of the entire Sudeten area and compensation for other states w/ claims against Czech territory / Chamberlain refuses.

Sept 24th 1938: Czech have mobilized, French call up reserves.

Sept 28th 1938: British navy on war footing.

September 29-30 1938: Meeting in Munich, Agreement btw Germany, Italy, France and Britain that Germany will have the entire Sudentenland.

Why did Chamberlain follow this policy of ‘appeasement’?

  1. Genuine fear that another conflict on scale of WWI would be the end of European civilization.
  2. Guilt over the terms imposed upon Germany in 1919 (maybe Hitler’s demands were simply to right this wrong?)
  3. Belief that Hitler’s demands were of a limited nature.
  4. Fear of war in Europe while Japan was becoming increasingly aggressive.
  5. Knowledge of the French weakness (due to internal divisions)
  6. Suspicion of the USSR and thus unwillingness to enter into any form of alliance with the one power capable of checking German ambitions. (Western suspicions of communism were deeper than suspicions of Nazism)
  7. Desire to gain time so Britain could build up her military strength.
  8. Popular opposition to war in Britain.

The policy proved to be mistaken b/c Hitler’s aims were not limited and this only encouraged further expansion.

March 1939: What was left of Czechoslovakia came under German influence (the president, when trying to restore authority, was ordered by Hitler to request German help to end disturbances à German troops occupied the rest of .CZ except the parts granted to Poland and Hungary)

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à Both the British and the French became determined to resist any further move by Hitler.

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The Invasion of Poland, Sept 1st 1939:

October 1938: Ribbentrop (German foreign minister) asks for the return of Danzig and the creation of an extra territorial corridor to link Danzig w/ the rest of Germany / Poland refuses.

Jan 5th 1938: Hitler offered the Ukraine (then Soviet territory) in return for Danzig and the Polish Corridor

March 1939: Britain offers to guarantee Polish territory à Hitler decides to deal w/ Poland not as a possible ally but as a state to be attacked.

April 3rd 1939: Hitler orders the army to prepare for plans to attack Poland.

April 28th 1939: Hitler denounces the non-aggression pact made w/ Poland in 1934.

May 22nd 1939: Pact of Steel btw Germany and Italy / USSR makes offers of an agreement w/ France and Britain but negotiations are so slow the USSR becomes suspicious of their motives.

August 24th 1939: Non-Aggression Pact btw Germany and the USSR ß contains a ‘Secret Protocol’ whereby they agreed on the division of Poland.

1st Sept 1939: German troops invade Poland.

3rd Sept 1939: Gt. Britain and France declare war on Germany.

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The Demolition of Peace 1935-1939

The Failure of Collective Security:

    • Provisions for joint action assumed that governments and peoples interested in preserving the peace would be willing to act together — that such action might mean war was not appreciated by even the warmest supporters of the League.
    • A policy of security which shirked military action could never give security against men like Mussolini or Hitler.

Japanese Aggression:

    • Sept. 1931 Japan attacks China (both members of the League)
      • Mukden incident.
    • Chinese appeal to the League and to the US à Council of the League asked both parties to withdraw their armed forces.
    • Japanese complete the conquest of the whole of Manchuria.
    • Lord Lytton Report — condemns Japanese action and dubbed Manchukuo a puppet creation (Feb. 1933)
    • March 1933: Japan withdraws from the League.
    • Neither the League nor the US took action (encouraged European aggressors)
    • July 1937: Marco Polo Bridge incident (Japanese renew their advance into China)
    • China appealed to the League but all great powers did not take action.

Italian Aggression:

    • Dec 1934, clash between Italian troops and Abyssinian escort at Walwal à Abyssinia appeals to League
    • May 1935, Abyssinia appeals again to the League
    • Oct 3, 1935, Mussolini launches the attack à league declares Italy to be the aggressor / imposes economic sanctions (but without sanctions on coal and oil)
    • Britain and France propose an unacceptable deal which secures Abysinnian territory for Italy
    • May 1936, Italians caputre capital of Addis Ababa
    • Council of the League abandons sanctions (!!!)
    • Sanctions were not imposed on oil, and the US, Germany, Japan and Brazil were then outside the League.
    • Were not backed by military sanctions.

German Aggression:

    • March 7, 1936, Hitler sends troops into the demilitarized Rhineland (violation of Versailles, and Locarno agreements)
      • Note: officers carried a note to withdraw in the event of French resistance.

Rearmament and Appeasement:

    • France and Britain begin rearmament programmes while a temporary equilibrium is reached in Europe at the end of 1937.
    • I.e.: Maginot line / Royal Air Force.

The Nature of Warfare 1939-1945

(The Practice of War)

  1. Many more countries involved / combat spread around the globe (i.e.: the Pacific theater…)
  2. First mechanized war (tank as key land weapon) which meant that the areas involved were much greater than in 1914-18


    • German forces (prepared for mechanized warfare) enjoyed great success from 1939-41
  1. Civilian casualties were very high (i.e.: through the use of heavy bomber aircraft / the use of ‘terror bombing’ i.e. Dresden / use of atomic bombs / or b/c of the forced labor in the areas occupied by the Axis forces / racial policies of the Nazis )
  2. Total War w/ civilian slave labor, mass deportations, execution of hostages, extermination camps…
  3. Great deal of activity by partisans or resistance movements. (i.e.: French resistance, and Tito)
  4. Use of aircraft (i.e.: German failure to gain control of British skies meant failure to invade Britain / Massive bombing to destroy industry, communications, and morale)
  5. Characterized as an ideological conflict (Democracy vs. fascism / left vs. right) the Axis powers were fascists but the distinction is less clear w/ Allies.
  6. THE FIRST AND ONLY NUCLEAR WAR

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The Effects of the Second World War

  1. Eclipse of Europe (control of world affairs moves to the USA and USSR who emerged as superpowers)
  2. International relations after the war come to be characterized by their bipolarity.
  3. Sweeping Social changes (Prof. Thomson: ‘Modern War is revolution’) i.e.: right to vote to women, demands for social change (i.e.: through election of Labor party)
  4. Completed the work of WWI: final destruction of the ‘old order’ w/ abolition of monarchies and ending of the power of the traditional elite.
  5. Gave great impetus to decolonialisation à both new superpowers opposed to colonialism, major colonial powers exhausted by the war, break up of the Myth of European superiority and invincibility.
  6. Rapid spread of Communism: b/c of occupation of eastern and central Europe by the USSR and communism had played a leading role in the struggle against Nazism.
  7. Rapid growth in regional and world organizations: attempt to create a more co-operative world order (UN / EEC)
  8. Boost for economic principles (through discrediting of fascism) à meant a continuation of human right violations but that democracy was not challenged in the way it had been in 1930s
  9. War became condemned as morally wrong à attempts to limit the use of warfare in international relations, conventions on use of certain weapons (since 1945 no country actually declared war on another!)
  10. Brought in the Nuclear Age with the changing of the ‘balance of power’ into the ‘balance of terror’.

Other less important effects:

  1. Massive refugee problem (i.e.: Stalin expelled minorities)
  2. Major Boundary Changes
  3. Constitutional changes imposed by the Allies
  4. War Crime Trials
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