Freddy - Religion and politics

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Islam and Politics

After founding by Prophet Mohammed (570-632), Islamic civilization experienced a period of rapid expansion for about a 1000 years, but a period of decline set in and by the 19th century many areas of the Moslem world had come under Christian imperial powers’ control.

The Islamic Revival

(since the end of WWII)

Reasons for the Revival:

  1. Reaction to the centuries of domination by western imperialism:
    1. Political: western powers extended political control over most of the Islamic world (w/ Imperialism)
    2. Economic: even after the granting of independence, western powers retained a great deal of economic control (i.e.: Suez Canal under the control of Western investors)
    3. Religious: western imperialist powers sought to convert the people they conquered (i.e.: Dutch tax on pilgrimage to Mecca in Dutch East Indies)
  1. Reaction against the decline of their own culture which was seen as a result of a move away from faith.
  2. The faith has an absolute appeal, it provides guidance in all aspects of life and seemed to solve problems of 20th cent. life
  3. Reaction against the corruption of many Moslem rulers (i.e.: Egypt’s King Farouk’s decadent lifestyle until overthrow 1952)
  4. North-South divide which helped portray Islam as the religion of the underprivileged seeking independence and Christianity as the religion of colonialism and racism.
  5. Decolonialisation: led to independence of countries with large or entire Moslem populations.
  6. Development of international organizations: forum where Moslem states could defend and impose their views.
  7. Creation of the state of Israel: resented as an imperialist action.
  8. Yom Kippur War (1973) turning point in Moslem-West relations à led to oil shocks and the realization of Arab influence.
  9. Development of the oil industry; provided some Moslem states w/ incredible wealth à used to promote Islam.


The Islamic State

No universally accepted definition b/c the Koran provides only a set of general principles and is mainly allegorical in content.

Principles of an Islamic State:

  1. State should be a republic (no place for a king)
  2. Should have a strong leader with great executive power but elected by the people.
  3. A consultative council (Shura) should be elected by the people.
  4. All citizens have the right to criticize the ruler
  5. In Islam politics are meant to be consensual and the laws must be in conformity with the Koran and Sharia, development of political parties that don’t accept this is not allowed.
  6. All law must be based upon the Sharia.
  7. Moslems, Christians, and Jews should enjoy equality of leagal and religious status.

The Status of Muslim Countries Today:

  1. Secular States: strict constitutional separation of church and state (rare since against fundamental principles / seen in Turkey & Indonesia)
  2. Muslim States: accept Islam as a guiding principle, but have adopted western models as the basis of political, legal, and social order (most states fit here: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, Bangladesh…)
  3. Islamic States: have their political and socio-economic order based upon the Koran and Sharia (Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and the Sudan)


Examples of religion and politics in Moslem Countries

Saudi Arabia:

    1. It is a monarchy (thus unlike other Moslem states)
    2. No constitution other than the Koran.
    3. Most Saudis belong to the Wahabite sect of Islam.
    4. Has the two most holy shrines in Islam: Mecca and Medina and was the home of the Prophet.

Main issues that have arisen:

  1. Religious hierarchy is interwoven w/ the secular authority at all levels à relationship hasn’t always been easy.


    • 1964: religious leaders challenged authority of King Saud and he was forced to abdicate.
  1. Issue of compatibility of new developments in technology has been problematic à conservative religious leaders opposed the introduction of new technology (i.e.: radio)
  2. Presence of foreigners in the country (linked to the oil industry) à criticism that non-Moslem foreigners could benefit from country’s wealth.
  3. Clash of Cultures (West-Saudis) b/c as wealth increased, Saudi citizens were able to travel. Religious leaders were concerned at these contacts which might lead to ‘degeneration’ à segregation for children in school after age of nine / veil wearing for females above nine.
  4. Religious police: ensure that religious requirements of faith are respected by all. In periods of criticism the Gov. made use of the muttawin to restore its credentials.
  5. The image that the punishments of the Sharia projected in Western countries, i.e.: flogging in public, cutting off hand of thief…
  6. Conduct of the members of the Royal family (esp. in visits to Western countries) à religious criticism.
  7. Profit motive/banking/education type: conflict in demands from businesses and religious leaders.
  8. Role of Saudi women: defined according to the Koran à limits on education, restriction on employment and travel.
  9. Invasion of Kuwait by Irak in 1990 / Gulf War:


    • Presence in Saudi Arabia of large numbers of American troops.
    • Involved Saudi Arabia in a war against a Moslem state into alliance with non-Moslem states.


 

 

Iran:

1979 — Shah of Iran overthrown by fundamentalist Islamic revolution of Ayatollah Khomeini.

The Reasons for the Fall of the Shah:

    • Ayatollah Khomeini did succeed in uniting all opposition to the Shah under the Islamic barrier.
  1. Shah suffered from a lack of legitimacy (no real claim based upon inheritance or pop. support) / not a ‘de facto’ ruler.
  2. Failure of his ‘White Revolution’ (attempt to confiscate property of the greatest landowners to distribute to the poor) à Shah was not willing to really push reform hard.
  3. The breaking up of the power of the landowners (shifted hatred for landowners to the Shah)
  4. His Pro-Western policies (closely linked w/ US) ß Shah had sided w/ foreign powers against his own people to strengthen his power (at the 1951 nationalist victory)
  5. His western-style ‘reforms’: popular amongst minority of wealthy Iranians but mostly seen as an attack on traditional values.
  6. His brutal methods including the use of the secret police (Savak).
  7. Shah lost even the support of the prosperous middle class (failure to allow any real participation in the political process)
  8. Corruption: didn’t deal w/ the corruption of the royal family.
  9. Paid too little attention to the anti-US feeling, i.e.: willingness to provide oil for Israel
  10. His pro-western policies angered other Moslem states who were willing to aid opposition to the Shah (i.e.: Syrian and Iraki aid)


The Creation of an Islamic State:

  1. Creation of a position of a supreme leader (both head of state and chief justice, to be held by the most suitable religious leader)
  2. President, elected directly by the people (four year terms)
  3. Creation of a National Consultative Assembly (Majlis) elected by the people (similar to western type parliaments)
  4. Council of Guardians: ensure that nothing was done against the tenets of Islam.


Ayatollah Khomeini was careful in his reforms to create an Islamic state to obtain popular support (March 1979: 98.2% yes to Islamic republic w/ 82% attendance)

Islamic Law brought in line with the Sharia (1982):

    1. Banking and commerce to obey Islamic prescriptions
    2. Women to wear veil and long dresses in public.
    3. Polygamy reintroduced.
    4. Contraceptives were banned.
    5. Education adapted with segregation of the sexes.
    6. Public beatings and executions became commonplace.
    7. Opposition parties as ‘anti-Islamic’.

System of ‘parallel powers’ to maintain clerical control:

    1. Revolutionary guards to crush civilian riots / Islamic courts to enforce Sharia
    2. Komitehs (watchdogs guarding against unIslamic dress or sexual/social dissent) feared.
    3. Expediency Council shadows the Majlis (can veto and stop Majlis from passing laws)

These were measures supported by the population, but there were still violations of human rights:

    1. Minority groups persecuted.
    2. At the referendum on the ‘Islamic state’ those who voted had their I.D. papers marked.
    3. Freedom of press did not include ‘matters…detrimental to the fundamentals of Islam…’
    4. Use of torture against opponents of the Gov.
    5. Attempts to form political parties (as allowed by constitution) not encouraged.


The Effects of the Iranian Revolution:

  1. The creation of a fundamentalist Islamic state caused a shift in the balance of power in a region of strategic importance.
  2. Provided a model for a successful Islamic revolution.
  3. Gov. in many Moslem states placed in difficulties b/c of the Ayatollah’s calls to Moslems to rise up against non-Islamic Gov.
  4. Gov. of Moslem states w/ pro-western foreign policies had to moderate their policies
  5. Led to a marked rise in international terrorism.
  6. The violently anti-US policies of the Iranians led to a break in diplomatic relations.
  7. Promotion of the concept of ‘Jihad’.


Islamic Unity

Koran says all Moslems are one nation and therefore present day boundaries between states are artificial. But attempts at Islamic Unity have been directed against the ‘enemies of Islam’ rather then to bring about unity in itself.

  1. Major political differences between Moslem states (i.e.: S.A. is a conservative monarchy while Libya is ruled by a revolutionary who overthrew the king)
  2. Religious differences: most Moslems are Sunni but Iran is largely Shia / differences between fundamentalists and modernists.
  3. Few Moslem states are truly Islamic states.
  4. Nationalism is a strong force, esp. in states which have recently obtained independence.
  5. Divisions within Moslem society: gaps between the wealthy and the mass of the people.
  6. Divisions between rich and poor states (oil producing vs. Poor states, although rich states like S.A. have use part of their wealth to promote Islamic causes)
  7. There remains a great deal of western influence which undermines traditional Islamic values à very difficult to benefit from advanced western technology w/out accepting some elements of western culture.


 

The Position of Women in Islamic Society

Issues:

  1. Marriage: man may have 4 wives but a woman only 1 husband.
  2. Divorce: easier for man to divorce then a woman.
  3. Dress Code: women must wear a dress which covers the whole of her body (except for face and hands) — wearing of veil.
  4. Child Marriages: in many countries arranged marriages for v. young girls are common.
  5. Employment: in practice all employment is forbidden in some countries (under argument that work brings women into contact w/ men in an unacceptable way.)
  6. Education: there must be segregation à the reality is there are much fewer women in full time education.
  7. Restrictions on: (in some countries)


    • going out unsupervised
    • wearing cosmetics
    • driving cars
    • Visiting public baths etc.


 

Factors to be considered:

  1. The extent to which the inferior status is built into the faith (i.e.: divorce laws)
  2. The extent to which women’s status varies from country to country according to interpretations of the Koran.
  3. Different sects of Islam
  4. The Koran was revolutionary in comparison to the way women were treated then (as goods)
  5. No separation of Church and State in Islam (elements of religious belief will be found in law)
  6. In western-Christian society changes in women’s right only took place recently.
  7. There still exists inequality in the west and forms of exploitation.
  8. Christian marriage ceremony includes promise of wife to ‘obey’ husband.


Other notes on Women in Islam see notes.

The Political Christ

Politicization: internal transformation of the faith itself, so that it comes to be defined in terms of political values — it becomes essentially concerned with social morality rather than with the ethereal qualities of immortality.

Why?

    • Belief that Christians have in the past been too concerned with spirituality.
    • Religious engagement with the world seen as an affair of charitable palliatives (i.e.: giving help to the poor à doesn’t solve their problem)
    • "politics moved into its own sphere" i.e.: Gov. education,…

What does politicization mean?

    • Contemporary Christians seek a reaction to what are regarded increasingly as collective sins: racism, economic or cultural exploitation, class division, denial of human rights…
    • Therefore the attitudes of Christians are those of society in general.
    • Some of the clergy have ‘defined their religious values according to the categories and references provided by the compulsive moralism of contemporary intellectual culture.’

"Between a Christian knowledge of politics acquired in order to serve the interests of the Chruch as an institution, and the identification of the content of the faith with human attempts at social improvement, there is a fundamental difference.

Consequences:

    • Church is not looked to for social teaching.
    • "Even fears of impending global chaos or annihilation do not elicit religious responses" as they once would have.
    • Religion is no longer regarded as a guarantor of stability.


 

Christianity

(Religion and Politics)

Key Points:

  1. Most widespread of the three great monotheistic faiths / major faith in the countries which have dominated international relations.
  2. Very divided faith.
  3. Has been associated with imperialism and accused of being the ‘white man’s faith’.
  4. Not a ‘literal minded’ faith in comparison w/ Islam.
  5. Includes the notion of the ‘separation of Church and State’.
  6. Remains serious doctrinal differences btw Catholics + Protestants.


Europe

General Background:

During the 19th century the influence of the Christian Churches in Europe began to deline seriously. The Main Reasons are:

  1. Scientific advances providing rational explanations for phenomena previously explained in religious terms.
  2. Darwin and his ‘Origin of the Species’ cast doubt upon the creation of mankind by God.
  3. Failure to come to terms with changes in society (i.e.: few churches in new industrial cities)
  4. Failed to anticipate the growth of democracy (i.e.: continued to side with aristocracy)
  5. Expansion of the role of the state (i.e.: w/ growth of socialism meant the creation of Gov. insurance, pension schemes, and education.
  6. Increased living standards in Europe meant a more materialistic outlook on life.
  7. Discredited (i.e.: horrors of WWI and the role of the Protestant Churches in encouraging nationalistic and warlike attitudes)
  8. Spread of Marxist beliefs (religion as ‘opiate of the masses’)


 

The reaction of the Roman Catholic Church:

Christian Democracy:

An attempt by the Catholic Church to develop appropriate social doctrines. Its aims were:

  1. Encourage class reconciliation (i.e.: combat the Marxist doctrine of class warfare)
  2. Supportive of the extension of the right to vote to the working class (in hope of a decrease in the appeal of Marxism)
  3. Promotion of the establishment of moderate political parties.
  4. Placing greater emphasis on the social and economic rights of the working class (as being as important as political ones)


Much work was a result of Pope Leo XIII who in 1891 issued a papal encyclical entitled ‘Rerum Novarum’

    • Industrial Revolution had placed wealth in the hands of "a small number of opulent and wealthy men and put upon the innumerable multitude of proletarians a yoke that differed little from slavery".
    • Support for worker organizations without which workers were "alone and defenseless…against the inhumanity of their masters".


Other measures of Pope Leo XIII: (1878-1903)

  1. Opened the archives of the Vatican to scholars after centuries of secrecy.
  2. Restated social doctrines to make them relevant.
  3. Encouraged the formation of Catholic trade unions.
  4. Sought to come to terms with the secular states with which the Church had been in conflict (i.e.: Italy, France)


 

The Catholic Church and Fascism:

Rise of Fascism represented a major setback for Christian Democracy:

  1. Totalitarian nature of fascism: i.e.: in Germany Churches were brought under tight Gov. control, curriculum of Catholic schools was supervised.
  2. In the early years of fascism the Church seemed willing to support the dictators (seen as a means of preventing the spread of atheistic communism) i.e.: in Italy agreements w/ Mussolini, in Germany it only criticized the Nazi regime in 1937! (Encyclical ‘With Burning Faith’)


 

The development of Christian Democracy after 1945:

After WWII, CD developed rapidly and became a major political force. The reasons for this are:

  1. Added the ‘appeal of the absolute’ to the traditional appeal of a moderate political party.
  2. Atheistic regimes had been totally discredited (i.e.: Germany)
  3. Seemed to offer the possibility of real change w/out recourse to either the extremes of left or right.
  4. No longer seen as purely Catholic.
  5. Provided an element of cohesion for the groups of the center of the political spectrum.
  6. Benefited from active support of the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church (of influence in areas where the majority of the pop. was Catholic: Italy, southern Germany, Belgium, …)
  7. In the former Axis states the CD benefited from the support of the occupying powers (i.e.: in Germany)


The Christian Democratic Union in the Federal Republic of Germany:

Reasons for the Success of the C.D.U.:

  1. Discrediting of the two extremes.
  2. Support from the Allies.
  3. Skillful leadership (Adenauer in 1950s and Kohl in 1980-90s)
  4. Part of a wider trend towards conservatism.
  5. Rapid economic recovery of Federal Republic in 1950s.
  6. C.D.U. played down the Catholic origins to allow for a wider appeal.
  7. Successful programmes of ‘social equalization’ (gave workers many rights…)
  8. Electoral law prevented fragmentation and favored the larger political parties of the center b/c party w/ under 5% of nationwide votes is not entitled to any seats in the parliament.


Christian Democracy in Italy:

CD held power from 1948 until a series of scandals in early 1990s. The main reasons for their success were:

  1. Very wide political base (appealed to all levels of society)
  2. Received considerable support from the Vatican and C.C.
  3. Enjoyed overwhelming support in rural south with its religious and conservative population.
  4. Fear of communism (which seemed as the only real alternative to the CDs).
  5. Supported by allies in the first elections (i.e.: victory for the left in 1948 might have meant being excluded from the Marshall Aid programme)
  6. Truman would not tolerate a communist Gov. in Italy and the communist were precisely the only alternative to the CDs.


From 1953 onwards the CDs are obliged to seek coalition partners to remain in power. They were able to survive until 1990s with the following consequences:

  1. Lack of stability in Gov. (i.e.: 1948-1988 on change of Gov. per year on average)
  2. Real issues not dealt with b/c attempts to do so would threaten the coalition Gov.
  3. Apathy toward the political process and contempt for politicians.
  4. Economic drift: part of Italy’s economy became ‘unofficial’ b/c of the lack of firm Gov.
  5. Rise of the communist party but its failure to achieve power nationally.


The Collapse of Christian Democracy in Italy:

(Main reasons for — 1990s)

  1. Failed to deliver real changes.
  2. Widespread corruption (i.e.: involvement w/ Mafia)
  3. Stagnation of the economy: Italy lags behind its European partners / growing divide between North and South.
  4. Belief that only a total reorganization of the system would enable progress to be made (b/c of corruption and killings by Mafia)
  5. Constitutional problems (i.e.: proportional representation system à coalition governments / fragmentation)


How Christian are Christian Democrats?

Christian faith doesn’t have the same close relationship between Church and state as in Islam, therefore a high degree of intermixing of religion and law or constitution was not expected.

However, there were some areas of involvement which were:

  1. Moral issues: esp. related to marriage, divorce and abortion (i.e.: in Ireland)
  2. Control of education: still issue in France where the solution was government funding for ‘private’ Catholic schools.
  3. Funding of Churches: i.e.: in Germany recognized Churches receive Gov. funding.
  4. Social programmes: i.e.: Church speaking out against Gov. plans to cut benefits or programmes for low-income earners.
  5. Direct constitutional links (sometimes) i.e.: in Britain, King or Queen is the head of the Church of England and must be Protestant.


 

The Catholic Church in Latin America

Background:

    • More then 95% Catholic à Church has great influence in region.
    • Until recently the Church sided with the ruling classes

à led to problems that must now be faced:

  1. Social injustice: few states in Latin America which could be described as democratic / very uneven distribution of wealth.
  2. Marxist influence: above problems meant there was a considerable interest shown by the oppressed in Marxism à many Marxist revolutions took place in Latin America
  3. Role of Clergy: to what extent should the Church become politically involved? à conflict between:


    • Catholic leadership in Rome / local leaders in LA
    • More conservative bishops/cardinals in LA / local leaders in Latin America
    • Conservative priests / activist priests


à led to the support by the more radical priest of ‘liberatio theology’


Other Important Problems:

    • Rapidly expanding population in LA which has outstripped the ability of the economies of the states à in some countries 50% pop. are under age of 20 / small ratio of priests to Catholic pop. / many priests are foreigners who stay for temporary periods / drift of rural workers to the cities.

Difficult to respond given:

    1. Problems associated w/ ‘machismo’ (lots of children means masculinity)
    2. Vatican ruling on certain forms of birth control.

Response of the Catholic Church Leadership:

Development of Social doctrines:

  1. Rerum Novarum (1891) see notes above.
  2. Quadragessimo Anno (1931): placed the Church on the side of land-less laborers and in support of agrarian reform.

Both were critical of the prevailing ‘western’ capitalist values (i.e.: labor-market determination of wages.)

1968: Pope Paul VI at ‘International Eucharist Congress’ in LA

" We will continue to denounce unjust economic inequalities…"

"We take this opportunity to exhort all the Governments of Latin America…to persevere in…the reforms necessary for a more just and efficient social arrangement…"

"Allow us…to exhort you not to place your trust in violence and revolution — that is contrary to the Christian spirit"

1980:

"Pope John Paul reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church’s commitment to seek non-violent social change…"

"…he warned that the liberation of the poor and oppressed must be in accordance with Christian, and not Marxist, concepts."

Conflict between the South American Church and Rome:

    • Clergyman in Sao Paulo: "This business of Roma locuta, causa finita [When Rome has spoken, the matter is ended] is a thing of the past"
    • Brazilian theologian: "The Pope wants the Church united on everything from holy water to the Eucharist. I wonder if there is any longer a place for pluralism?"
    • 1984 radical thinker Boff was censored by Rome which accused him of "a disastrous confusion between the poor of the scriptures and the proletariat of Marx"
    • ‘Theology of Liberation’ (since early 1970s) à activist priests.

à politicization of the faith (see notes above)

Main Features of the Theology of Liberation:

The influence is "to a large extent due to Marx":

  1. Advocating class struggle (Church ought to be active where people/social classes struggle…)
  2. Advocating Marx’s idea of violent revolution: (revolutionary violence can be justified to bring change in the face of the institutionalized violence of the state.)
  3. Marxist view of ‘good life on earth’: advocates salvation is not only some ‘other worldly’ condition but the construction of social justice in the existing world.
  4. Believes that Christ was a political liberator (message of revolution in the Bible)
  5. Advocates class consciousness: importance of education in generating social consciousness.

Theology of Liberation in action:

Brazil:

Progressive elements of the episcopate:

    • Worked for a radical transformation of inherited socio-economic and political structures.
    • Helped create an ecclesiastical climate which facilitated the emergence of liberation theology.

The Church emerged in Brazil as a major source of opposition to authoritarian rule, it:

    • Helped produce leaders for mass opposition movements.
    • Established Ecclesiastical Base Communities to help neighborhoods cop with the rigors of life.

Return to civilian rule in 1985 à less Church engagement in the political arena. Post Military Period:

    • Yet, Church is still critical of the Gov.’s policies concerning the poor.
    • Attacked Gov. on corruption and failure to address continuing economic and social problems (1988)
    • Drew attention to the destruction of Amazonian forests.
    • Refusal of some to participate in this emphasize still existing divisions btw progressives and conservatives.

Nicaragua: (1979 Revolution)

    • Radical clergy assisted the revolutionary effort.


The Position of the Catholic Church in the 1990s:

  1. Clear stance against social/economic injustice (criticisms of aspects of capitalism)
  2. Demands for land and tax reform to increase support for the poorest and most oppressed members of society.
  3. Pressured Gov. thought to be slow at reform.
  4. Priests, at a local level, have increasingly identified w/ the struggles of the very poor.

    5. However, Rome and some of the hierarchy have stated:

  5. Change must be non-violent and gradual.
  6. Marxism and Christianity cannot be linked together.
  7. Liberation theology is not acceptable.
  8. Priest that go beyond limits will be disciplined.

Note: recent popes have adopted conservative stances on matters of faith, refusing to accept changes in the areas of birth control, divorce, …

The Christian Churches in South Africa

Christian Churches face the problem of their attitude to apartheid.

    1. The Dutch Reformed Church has accepted it, and claimed there is divine support for it.
    2. The various English speaking Churches have opposed apartheid and become involved in the struggle against it.


Apartheid and the Dutch Reformed Church:

Note: The Church has been very much involved in the history of the Afrikaner’s attempts to preserve the independence of their people. There has been a close relationship between the DRC and the aspirations of the Afrikaners:

  1. Christian Nationalism: love of nation and love of Christ go together (i.e.: success of Great Trek meant support of God.)
  2. DRC has been one of the chief means of preserving the culture of Afrikaners.
  3. Afrikaners felt a sense of superiority over non-European races ß supported by the ‘God-willed diversity of peoples’.

Note: the history of the Afrikaners has been a history of struggle to preserve an identity à led to ‘laager mentality’ (need to survive)

Apartheid and the English Speaking Churches:

The ESC have played an increasingly active role in opposition to it.

  1. ESC took the position that:


    • Discrimination btw men on the basis of race was inconsistent w/ principles of Christianity.
    • All should have the right to vote (irrespective of race)
    • All should have equal opportunities in education and work.
  1. ESC have protested against Gov. regulations in implementing Apartheid (i.e.: Group Areas Act, Mixed Marriage Act, Immorality Act)
  2. ESC and DRC (although this statement was rejected by its own hierarchy) made a statement which included:


    • That mixed marriages were valid.
    • A condemnation of migratory labor laws.
    • A demand that all citizens of South Africa receive equal shares in the rewards and privileges of citizenship.
  1. Setting up of the Christian Institute (banned in 1977) to establish common ground btw different races and different Churches.
  2. Council of South African Churches (1968) formed to fight against racism à criticized the ‘false gospel’ of apartheid.


    • Helped organize community dev. projects.
    • Provided scholarships for black students.
    • Gave help to families of political prisoners.
    • Publicly criticized apartheid policies
  1. 1978: Black bishop Desmond Tutu as general-secretary of Council of South African Churches (more credibility w/ black pop.)
  2. CSAC urged people to refuse to do military service.


Evaluation of the success of the Council in its struggle:

Despite some minor success, no great impact b/c:

  1. Blacks tended to adopt a cynical attitude towards the council.
  2. Many blacks identified Christianity with imperialism.
  3. The Council had very little political influence b/c it had no political party.
  4. Overtaken by the actions of the World Council of Churches: WCC provided grants to groups who fought apartheid.


    • Promoted non-violence (blacks saw little alternatives to non-violence and took as example the resistance movements in Europe in WWII who were and still are praised despite their violence.
  1. Gov. showed little evidence of weakness b/c:


    • Possessed most powerful military force in Africa
    • Western powers could do little against it (needed gold, diamonds and uranium productions)
    • Effective barrier to communism (???)


The Black Renaissance:

1970s: growth in black consciousness, caused by:

    1. Success of civil rights movements in the US.
    2. Success of guerilla groups in Mozambique, Angola…
    3. Detribalisation amongst urban blacks who then identified w/ being black instead of w/ a tribe.

This new pride was a problem to Churches b/c:

    1. How to respond w/ the increasing violence w/out alienating itself further from the blacks.
    2. How to deal with the rejection of ‘the white man’s church’.
    3. How to respond to development of ‘black theology’ (Africanized and politicized faith in order to fit black peoples struggle in South Africa)


The Position of The Orthodox Church

in the USSR

 

Two factors to bear in mind:

    1. The Orthodox Church was one of the greatest supporters of the Czarist system of autocracy.
    2. According to Marxist doctrine (incorporated into the official state ideology of the USSR) religion is ‘the opiate of the masses’.


The Situation 1917-1940:

1918: Decree concerning ‘the separation of Church and State and the separation of the Schools from the Church’ with the aim of:

    1. To bring to an end close identification btw Church and State that had existed w/ the czars.
    2. Exclude the Church from any role in education.

This was done by:

    1. Forbidding all Church participation in the life of state.

      2. - Church could not control hospitals, etc. and was cut off from its ‘charity’ role.

    2. Taking away control of schools.
    3. Churches could only remain open upon Gov. approval.
    4. Freedom of conscience was declared, but in practice people who attended church services were persecuted.

Result:

    1. Many anti-orthodox outbursts.
    2. Church property confiscated.
    3. Number of priests fell.
    4. Number of churches, monasteries, etc. fell
    5. Church schools and institutions closed.
    6. Patriarch imprisoned.

Note: the existence of compulsory lessons in atheism in all schools and factories.

Reaction of the Church:

    1. Ordered faithful to obey the orders of the new Gov. as long as not opposed to the faith.
    2. Took no active part in politics / avoided siding with the ‘whites’ in Civil war.
    3. Patriarchs professed loyalty to new state (even tough emprisonned at times)


The partial recovery of the Church 1941-1959:

  1. W/ the threat of Nazi Germany Stalin saw the value of a national church in uniting the people behind the authorities in the coming struggle.
  2. The attention of the Soviet leaders was directed away from the Church after the war: expansion of power in E.E., post-war reconstruction, death of Stalin à power struggle…

Results:

    1. Increase in number of priests
    2. Reopening of churches.
    3. Seminaries allowed to open.
    4. Church organization based on the dioceses w/ bishops allowed.

To control this, the Gov. created the ‘Narkomopium’ Minister of Opium (nickname for department to control religious affairs)

The Situation since 1959:

    • Began to deteriorate again.
    • The constitution and criminal codes of the USSR have reduced the religious rights of citizens in practice whilst seeming to guarantee them.

Areas of State control:

  1. All places of worship must be registered.
  2. Authorities have the right to refuse or withdraw authorization w/out explanation.
  3. Authorities must approve all appointments of Church governors.
  4. Pressure on internal Church appointments.
  5. Authorities decide which activities are acceptable and not.


Note: apart from the holding of religious services in churches, all other forms of religious activity is banned by the ‘Law on Religious Association’.

The Position 1985:

  1. Seems to have survived (about 40 million members)
  2. Still a lot of tight government control.
  3. Association w/ the Orthodox Church would result in ‘difficulties’ (i.e.: low priority for housing, lack of promotion)
  4. Church leaders are subservient to the government (no criticism)
  5. For soviet leaders the ideal is a ‘phantom church’ which maintains the outward form of the church (useful in projecting images to the rest of the world) but to have real membership inside the USSR decline rapidly.

Zionism and the State of Israel

    • Israel is a state created as a homeland for a specific religious group.
    • Zionism: movement formerly for re-establishing, now for supporting, the Jewish national state of Israel.

Note: Zion = Kingdom of God / Heaven.

    • result of the work of Theodore Herzl (1860-1904 / Austrian Jew) who was convinced that there would always be persecution of Jews whilst they remained as minorities.

‘The Balfour Declaration’: (1917)

    • Letter from British foreign secretary to Zionist leader.
    • Promise of help in establishing a ‘national home for Jews’ in Palestine.


Different opinions within the Zionist Movement:

  1. Messianic: believed the faith could only be preserved through a return to the land of Israel.
  2. Spiritual Zionism: very liberal, wanted co-operation w/ the Arab population / believed that salvation for the Jewish people would come through spiritual revival.
  3. Labor Zionism: developed as part of a widespread advance in socialism in Europe after 1870: focused on people rather than land or faith.
  4. Greater Israel ideology: believe in the Jewish right to the whole biblical Israel including Gaza, West Bank, and beyond.


Events leading to the establishment of the state of Israel:

    • After WWII, British policy in Palestine (based upon notion that Arab and Jewish nationalism could be reconciled) was doomed to fail.
    • Britain invited the UN to propose a settlement.
    • UN proposed that Palestine be partitioned into a Jewish and an Arab state w/ Jerusalem as an international zone.
    • Britain opposed this and announced withdrawal of troops for May 1948.
    • Violence had started as British troops withdrew / Jewish leaders accepted the UN settlement but Arabs rejected the plan.
    • When fighting stopped Jewish forces controlled 82% of Palestine.


The impact of Zionist beliefs and the war of 1948-49 on the new state:

In 1947-48 the different Zionist groups reached a compromise as to the nature of the soon to be created state of Israel:

  1. Existing political status quo would be maintained after independence through the adoption of a system of proportional representation.
  2. New state would keep the Sabbath, maintain Orthodox control over laws concerning personal status (i.e.: marriage, divorce, etc.) and allow different educational streams including Orthodox.
  3. No definition of the nature of the state and no fixing of its boundaries.


Israel did not have any constitution, bill of rights or boundaries, a situation which continues today.

Note: many Zionists believed that Israel could be created only through struggle "We fight, therefore we are".

The Jewish nature of the state:

From the Declaration of Independence of 14th May 1948:

    • "Open for Jewish immigration"
    • "Based upon freedom, justice and peace"
    • "ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex"
    • "will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture"
    • "faithful to the principles of the Charter of the UN"


How has this been put into practice?

Law of Return: any Jew had the right to ‘return’ to Israel.

à presupposes the existence of a definition of a Jew.

1970: Knesset passed a law that "…a Jew was one born of a Jewish mother or a convert…"

The Nationality Law:

Anyone who is not Jewish and is applying for citizenship must:

    • Be born in Israel
    • Have lived in Israeli occupied territory for threes years out of the five preceding application.
    • Have good knowledge of Hebrew.

It was this distinction between Jews and non-Jews that influenced the UN to condemn Zionism as a form of racial discrimination. (1975)

The ownership of land:

    • 75% state, 20% Jewish national fund/private owners, 5% Palestinian Arabs.

Arabs, who make up 16% of the pop., own 5% of the land.

Why?

    • Many Arabs fled from their homes during the war of 1948-49.
    • In 1950, Israeli Gov. passed the Absentees Property Law by which property of any owner having left the country could be confiscated.
    • Defence Regulations Act allowed military to designate areas ‘closed’ to Arabs (i.e.: eviction of Arab landowners from areas close to the pre-1967 frontiers)
    • Agricultural Settlement Law (1967) prevents non-Jews from leasing Gov.-owned land.


The expansion of Israel:

    • War of 1948-49: conquered 82% of Palestine
    • 1967, Six Day War, conquered the West Bank and Gaza (only remaining Arab parts of Palestine), Golan Heights (Syria) and the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)
    • 1977: began a policy of establishing Jewish settlements in the West Bank.
    • 1980: Annexed Golan and Arab Jerusalem (not recognized by UN)
    • 1982: Returned the Sinai to Egypt.


To What extent is this part of a policy based upon Zionist claims that the whole of biblical Israel (Yretz Yisreal) is Jewish? To what extent is it simply a question of security until the Arab states recognize Israel?

The Security Argument:

    • Frontiers proposed by the UN in 1947 left Israel exposed.
    • Arab states refused to recognize Israel under any circumstances.
    • PLO dedicated to violent overthrow of Israel
    • Power of combined Arab states presented a real threat.
    • Golan Heights used by Syria to bombard Israeli settlements in the region.

However, the is evidence that Israeli Gov. intended to expand the country’s frontiers b/c of the Zionist belief in the right of the Jewish people to the whole of Eretz Yisrael.

    • 1954: USA offered a security pact to give US guarantee of Israeli frontiers: Israel refused!
    • 1972: Zionist Congress stated that the Jews had the right to the whole of Eretz Yisrael.
    • 1977: Prime Minister Begin stated that the West Bank was "an integral part of [Israeli] sovereignty"


Restrictions on non-Jewish Israelis:

    1. Excluded from service in the army.
    2. Arab political parties are banned.
    3. Purely Arab professional organisation are not allowed.
    4. In education curriculum controlled by Gov., teaching of aspects of Palestinian culture is discouraged.
    5. Arabs had tended to occupy the lowest status jobs.


 

Some major developments:

  1. Population shift in Israel: shifted towards Oriental Jews whe were far more conservative, less well educated, and far more religiously observant than European Jews. The effects were:


    • Decline in influence of the Labor Party (rise to power of the Likud)
    • Population of Israel less representative of world Jewish community.
    • Majority of young Israelis tend to be more to the right then previous generations.
  1. Rise of militarism: belief that by military force Israel can achieve the goal of a Greater Israel / associated w/ the belief that Arabs would never be reconciled to the loss of land to Israel.
  2. The Occupied Territories:


    • Growing international criticism of living conditions for Palestinians.
    • Settlement policy in West Bank was of international concern.
    • Uprisings amongst the Palestinian population: ‘Intifadeh’ (1987)
    • Very repressive Israeli action (destruction of homes, closing of schools and universities, deporting of Palestinian leaders)
    • Increasing Brutality by Israeli forces
  1. Negotiations with the PLO: support for Israel has reduced w/ even the US opening contacts w/ the PLO à opinion in the West that Israel doesn’t wish to negotiate w/ Palestinians.
  2. Internal Israeli politics: in order to be able to rule it has become necessary to have the support of the small political parties (very right wing and orthodox) à support bought at price of a ‘hard-line’ stance against PLO negotiations, support for settlements in West Bank and attempts to enforce orthodoxy.


 

 

Socialism in Europe 1870-1914

Definition: ‘Any of various theories of the ownership and operation of the means of production and distribution by society rather than by private individuals, with all members of society sharing in the work and the products.’

Origins: Doctrines of Rousseau, early ideals of the French Revolution (fraternity) / effects of the industrial revolution (development of huge cities, slums and terrible working conditions.)

Early ‘Utopian’ socialism: (1st half of 19th century)

    • Idealist, humanitarian form of socialism.
    • Attempts to establish ideal communities in America b/c of despairing conditions in Europe.
    • Leaders considered as eccentrics or harmless by most Gov.

Scientific socialism: (from mid-19th century)

    • Result of the works of Louis Blanc, Karl Marx.
    • Didn’t lead to revolution anywhere in Europe until 1917.


Problems faced by Socialism from 1870 to 1914:

  1. ‘Accomodating nature of capitalism’ à development of free, compulsory mass education, bonus schemes/ promotion through merit.

    2. à led to reducing the high degree of class ossification of the past.

  2. Nationalism: Marx assumed individuals would be loyal to their own class but the masses were more influenced by loyalty to their own nation-state.
  3. Revolutionary socialism undermined by reforms, i.e.: in Western Europe demands for social/political/economic reform were met by:


    • Development of parliamentary Gov.
    • Moves towards universal male suffrage.
    • Regulation of working conditions.
    • Social security provisions.
  1. Improvement in living standards: (contradicted Marxist view that conditions of the workers would deteriorate)
    1. Life expectancy increased.
    2. Decline in food prices.
    3. Incomes increased.
  1. Split between Marxists and Anarchists: destroyed First International (international workers’ union)
  2. Growth of Syndicalism: true freedom could only be won by ‘direct action’ (strikes, paralyzing the economy,etc.)
  3. Growth of trade unions: didn’t always support political socialist movements.
    1. In France CGT stated its independence from political parties / Britain: TUC gave birth to the Labor Party / in Italy the Federation of Labour was split btw syndicalist and Catholic unions / …
    2. In times of depression the credibility of socialists was high and in periods of prosperity their support declined rapidly.
    3. Unions more concerned with short term gains for their members vs. Socialists more concerned with long term benefits for society.
  1. Conflict btw ‘revolutionary socialism’ and ‘revisionism’: Marxists argued all compromise was wrong but there were many socialists willing to work for change within the system.
  2. Nationalizing of socialism:


    • Leaders began to think in terms of general rather then narrow class terms as the right to vote spread.
    • Development of political parties à those socialists elected sat in national parliaments and tended to adopt a more national view.
    • Workers benefited from laws passed by national parliaments à they had ‘more to lose than their chains’.


 

The position of the socialists in the main European states at the turn of the century:

Gt. Britain:

    • Fabian Society: believed in gradual, evolutionary change / society of intellectuals.
    • Trade unions: (1871 à attain legal status) sought to obtain better pay and working conditions through industrial action, eventually, many united to form the Trades Union Congress.
    • Independent Labor Party (formed in 1893) aim of ensuring that socialist candidates were elected to parliament to pressure for reform.

Before WWI, the many branches of socialism had united behind the Labor Party and had abandoned almost all of the Marxist elements.

France:

After Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 there was an attempt to seize power by the Communards (revolutionary socialist elements) à failed, crush violently in ‘La Semaine Sanglante’.

Moderate socialist remained weak for much of post-1870 b/c trade unions adopted a ‘direct’ approach to bringing about desired social reforms.

Existed a parliamentary group called the Independents (middle class intellectuals with little appeal to the working class)

Following the Dreyfus Affair the socialists did unite under the leadership of Juares in 1905. à weakened by refusal of the main trade union (CGT) to support them and assassination of Juares (1914).

Germany:

Some degree of formal unity w/ August Babel under name of Social Democrats. By 1912, it was the largest political party in Germany with 11 deputies in the Reichstag. Despite this it had little influence b/c:

    • German parliament did not have the same authority as those in Britain or France.
    • Bismarck protected German workers and this ‘pulled the carpet out from beneath the Social Democrats’.
    • Serious internal contradiction


Austro-Hungary:

    • United under the leadership of Vitor Adler to form the Austrian Social Democratic Party
    • Gained considerable votes in parliament.
    • Limited Power b/c:
    • Not a democratic state. Most power lay outside parliament.
    • Multi-national state: clash between socialism and nationalism.


 

 

Russia:

Socialism developed differently b/c of differences with the other states discussed above. These include:

    • Autocratic system of Gov. did not allow the formation of political parties (when Duma was finally formed remained weak and could be dismissed by the Czar)
    • Industry did not really begin to develop until after 1890.

As a result, Russian socialist groups tended to be more committed to violent revolutionary overthrow of the system.

Important groups were:

    • Social Democratic Labor Party: (1898 on Marxist principles)
    • Bolsheviks: in favor of a small, highly disciplined group of professional revolutionaries seeking complete overthrow of Czarist system.
    • Mensheviks: favored a more open approach w/ wider member participation in decision making.
    • Social Revolutionary Party.

Note: trade unions were illegal so no development there.

Although this was to have tremendous implications after 1917, no group had made much progress before 1914 and when war broke out the Czarist system seemed as secure as ever.

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